Process Safety Calculations

Front-Matter_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Front Matter
Copyright_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Copyright
Author-Biography_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Author Biography
Preface-to-the-Second-Edition_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Preface to the Second Edition
Chapter-1---Chemistry-of-Process-Safety_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Chemistry of Process Safety
		Stoichiometry and Mass Balances
			Mass Balances
			Chemical Reactions
			Jet Flows From Pressurised Systems
			Flash Flow
			Absorption and Adsorption
		States of Substances in Process Safety
			Gases and Vapours
			Liquids
			Dusts
			Hybrid Mixtures
			Explosive Mists
			Supercritical Fluids
		Mass and Concentration Units in Process Safety
			Partial Volumes (Gas Phase)
			Mass Fraction (Gas and Liquid Phase)
			Mass-to-Volume Concentration (Gas and Liquid Phase)
			Parts per Million (Gas and Liquid Phase)
			Parts per Million (Gas Phase)
			Molar Concentration (Aqueous Solutions)
			Concentration Units Conversion Summary
		Solutions and Chemical Equilibrium
			Gaseous Solutions
			Kinetics and Equilibrium in Gas Reactive Mixtures
			Liquid Solutions
				Liquid-liquid solutions
				Vapour-liquid equilibrium in liquid solutions
			Azeotropic Mixtures
			Gas-Liquid Equilibrium in Liquid Solutions
			Gas-Liquid Equilibrium in Acid Gas Removal (AGR) Units
			Equilibria in Aqueous Solution
			Hydrogen Sulphide
			Sulphuric and Sulphurous Acid
			Carbon Dioxide
			Ammonia
			Chlorine
			Hydrolysis
		Absorption and Adsorption
			Absorption With Chemical Reaction
			Stripping
			Adsorption
		Applications
			Kinetics and Equilibrium of Sulphur Oxides
			Properties of Hydrogen Sulphide
			Properties of Ammonia
			Properties of Sulphur Dioxide
			Properties of Sulphur Trioxide
			Properties of Carbon Monoxide
			Properties of Carbon Dioxide
			Properties of Chlorine
			Properties of Benzene
Chapter-2---Thermodynamics-and-Thermochemistry-of-_2021_Process-Safety-Calcu
	Thermodynamics and Thermochemistry of Process Safety
		Ideal Gases
			Standard and Normal Conditions
		Real Gases
			Virial Equation of State
			Corresponding States
			State Equations
		Polytropic Transformations
		State Functions
			Internal Energy
			Enthalpy
			Entropy
		Thermodynamic Properties
			Specific Heats
			Vapour Pressure
			Latent Heat of Vaporisation
			Sound Speed of Liquids and Gases
		Heat Transfer Mechanisms
			Thermal Conduction
			Thermal Convection
				Empirical correlations for natural thermal convective flow
					Natural convection for vertical and inclined plates
					Natural convection for horizontal plates
					Natural convection for long horizontal cylinders
					Natural convection for spheres in fluids
				Empirical correlations for forced thermal convective flow
					Turbulent flow in pipes
					Cylinders in cross flow
					Flow around spheres
			Thermal Radiation
				Emissivities of solid surfaces
				View factors
					Infinitely long parallel cylinders
					Infinitely long parallel cylinders of the same diameter
					Perpendicular surfaces with a common edge
					Linear and circular surfaces
					Coaxial parallel disks
					Parallel rectangles
					Perpendicular rectangles with a common edge
					Thermal radiation and emissivities of gases
					Water vapour
					Carbon dioxide
		Applications
			Isothermal Processes
				Free expansion
			Isochoric Processes
			Isobaric Processes
			Adiabatic Processes
			Thermodynamics of LNG
				Definition of LNG
				Physical-chemical data of LNG
			Thermodynamics of Pressurised Liquids
			Thermodynamics of LPG
			Thermodynamics of Carbon Dioxide
			Thermodynamics of Ammonia
			Thermodynamics of Chlorine
Chapter-3---Reaction-Engineering-of-Process-Sa_2021_Process-Safety-Calculati
	Reaction Engineering of Process Safety
		Background
		Reactive Hazards
		Homogeneous Reactions
			Hydrocarbons
			Carbon Monoxide
			Hydrogen Sulphide
			Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
		Heterogeneous Reactions
			Solid-Catalysed Reactions
			Noncatalytic Gas-Solid Reactions
		Reactor Schemes
			CSTR (Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor)
			BATCH-DSTR (Discontinuous Stirred Tank Reactor)
			PFR (Plug Flow Reactor)
		Combustion Reactions
			Definitions
			Combustion of Hydrocarbons
				Lower flammability limit
				Upper flammability limit
				Limits of flammability in pure oxygen
				Quenching distance
			Combustion of Nitrogenated Compounds
			Combustion of Sulphur Compounds
			Combustion of Chlorinated Compounds
			Combustion With Halogens Like Oxidant
			Reaction of Combustion With Oxides of Nitrogen
			Combustion of Phosphorated Compounds
		Reaction Heat
		Combustion Heat
		Heat of Solution
		Heat of Neutralisation
		Endothermic Processes
		Pyrophoricity
			Pyrophoric Substances
			Pyrophoricity Scenarios
		Reactivity of Remarkable Substances
			Ammonium Nitrate
			Chlorates
			Organic Peroxides and Hydrogen Peroxide
		Self-Heating
			Semenov Model
			Frank-Kamenetskii Model
			Thomas Model
			Choice of a Model
		Water and Spray Curtains
Chapter-4---Fluid-Dynamics-of-Process-Safety_2021_Process-Safety-Calculation
	Fluid Dynamics of Process Safety
		Equations of Conservation
			Equation of Mass Conservation
			Equation of Conservation of Momentum
			Equations of Conservation of Energy
		Joule-Thomson Expansion in Process Safety
		Turbulent and Laminar Flows
			Laminar-Turbulent Transition
		Liquid Elasticity (Bulk Modulus)
			Bulk Modulus and Sound Velocity
		Fluid Hammer (Surge)
			Water Hammer in Pipelines
		Theory of Jets
			Definitions
				Jet
				Turbulent gas jet
				Transitional gas jet
				Laminar gas jet
			Choked and Unchoked Jet
			Isothermal Turbulent (Choked) Gas Steady Jet
				Choked Jet
					Outlet plane
					Shock plane
			Unsteady Gas Jet
			Transient Release of Turbulent Jets
			Effect of Wind on Turbulent Jet
			Non-Isothermal Jets
			Unchoked (Subsonic) Flow
				Equivalent gases
				Light gases
				Heavy gases
			Turbulent to Laminar Jet Comparison
		Buoyancy
		Flashing Liquids
			Jet Shattering by Flashing
		Spray Release and Droplet Dynamics
			Capillary Break Up
			Flashing and Aerodynamic Break Up
			Prediction of the Rain-Out Fraction
		Pool Evaporation
			Simplified Formula for a Single-Component Pool Evaporation
			Evaporation Flux From a Cryogenic Pool
		Hydrogen Sulphide Release From Free Surfaces
Chapter-5---Loads-and-Stress-Analysis-of-Proces_2021_Process-Safety-Calculat
	Loads and Stress Analysis of Process Safety
		Structural Failure Scenarios in Process Safety
		Key Concepts
			Burst
			Explosion
			Static Pressure
			Dynamic Pressure
			Shock and Pressure Wave
			Deflagration and Detonation
			Deflagration to Detonation Transition (DDT)
			Physical Explosion
			Confined Explosion
			Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion (UVCE)
			Overpressure and Duration
			Stagnation Pressure
			Side-on Pressure, Reflected Pressure, Diffracted Pressure
			Wind or Drag Loads
			Buckling
				Very long cylinders
				Short cylinders
			Pressure Piling
			BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expansion Vapour Explosion)
			Rapid Phase Transition
		Stresses
			Tensile and Compression Stresses
			Shear Stresses
			Elastic and Plastic Stresses
			Viscous Creep
		Membrane Stresses in Thin-Shell Structures
			Cylindrical Shell
				Longitudinal stress
				Circumferential stress
			Spherical Shell
		Forces in Piping Bends
		Thermal Loads
		Flixborough UVCE: Analysis of the Structural Causes
			Balance of forces
			Stress Analysis
				Bellow shear stress
				Shear stress at the mitre-joint point
				Tensile stress at the mitre-joint point
			Analysis and Conclusions
Chapter-6---Statistics-and-Reliability-of-Proces_2021_Process-Safety-Calcula
	Statistics and Reliability of Process Safety
		Background
			Gaussian Function
			Gaussian Probability Distribution
			Probit Function
		Probit Functions for Process Safety
		Failure Frequency and Probability
		Failures and Faults
			Definitions
			Failure Rates
			Composite Failure Rate
		Boolean Algebra
		Boolean Algebra in Functional Safety
			Probability and Frequency of Failure on Demand
			Common Cause Failure
Chapter-7---Source-Models_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Source Models
		Summary of Scenarios
		Subcooled Liquids
			Unpressurised Liquid Discharge From Tanks
			Unpressurised Liquid Discharge From Horizontal Tanks and Pipelines
			Pressurised Liquids
				Elastic-to-Torricellian transition (nonvolatile liquids)
				Vessel-type systems
				Pipeline-type systems
				Driving force: Process pressure (highly volatile subcooled liquids)-API 520 method
					Step 1: Omega and saturation pressure ratio parameters
					Step 2: Subcooling region
						Low subcooling region
						High subcooling region
					Step 3: Critical flow
						Low subcooling region
						High subcooling region
					Step 4: Mass flux calculation
						Low subcooling region
						High subcooling region
				Driving force: Process pressure (highly volatile subcooled liquids)-Transient behaviour
				Driving force: Head-space gas pressure
		Boiling Liquids
			Boiling Liquid Stored at Atmospheric Pressure
				Mass flow rate
				Jet fragmentation and droplet formation
				Droplet evaporation
				Rainout distance from the outlet
			Boiling Liquids Stored Under Pressure-API 520 Method
			Boiling Liquids Stored Under Pressure-Fauske and Epstein Method
			Intermediate Situation Between Subcooled and Saturated Stagnation
			Transition From Subcooled to Saturated Stagnation
			Boiling Liquids Stored Under Pressure-Transient Behaviour
		Rainout and Flashing-Liquid Droplets Formation
			Flash Vapour Fraction
			Rainout for Continuous Releases of Superheated Liquids
				Kletz (1977) correlation
				DeVaull and King refitted correlation
				Lautkaski correlation
			Rainout for Instant Releases of Superheated Liquids
				Prugh (1987) correlation
				Mudan and Croce (1988)
			Mean Drop Size
		Carbon Dioxide: Liquid-to-Solid Transition
			State 1: Stagnation
			State 2: Hole Outlet (Ref. Example 7.4)
			State 3: Triple Point/Liquid Vapour Equilibrium
			State 4: Triple Point: Solid Vapour Nonequilibrium
			State 5: Solid Vapour Final Expansion
				Particle size and snow-out
		Gases and Vapours
			Choked and Unchoked Jets
			Effect of Pressure and Temperature: Gas Release From Pipelines
		Pool Formation and Liquid Evaporation
			Transient Pool Radius-Wu and Schroy Formula
			Pool Evaporation Formulas
				Equations of Cox et al. for noncryogenic and cryogenic pools
				Recknagel equation
				EPA equation for mixture pools
				Sutton equation
				Matthiesen (1986) equation
				Equations of Kawamura and MacKay
		US EPA Offsite Consequence Analysis (OCA) Models
			Release Rate From Pools at Ambient Temperature
			Release Rate From Pools at Elevated Temperature (50C>T>25C)
			Release Rate From Pools at Elevated Temperature (>50C)
			Pool Spreading Area (Other Than Diked)
			Release Rate From Pools for Mixture Components
		Simplified Formulas
			Liquid Releases
				Subcooled liquids
				Subcooled liquids in vertical cylindrical tanks
				Boiling liquids
			Vapour Flow
Chapter-8---Dispersion-Models_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Dispersion Models
		Summary of Scenarios
		Dispersion Key Drivers
		Meteorology
			Weather Stability Classes
			Wind
			Wind Rose
		Buoyancy
		Momentum-Dominated Jet Behaviour
			Turbulent Jets
			Transitional and Laminar Jets
			Momentum to Buoyancy Transition
		Density and Thermal Positively Buoyant Plumes
			Momentum-Dominated Positive Buoyant Plumes
			Combination of Momentum and Positive Buoyant Plumes
		Thermal Plume Rise
		Negatively Buoyant Plumes (Dense Gas)
			Onset of a Dense Gas Dominating Regime
			Decision of Dense Gas Model Application
			Britter-McQuaid Model
			Hoehne and Luce Model
		Transition to Passive Dispersion
			Momentum-Jet to Passive-Plume Transition
			Positively Buoyant to Passive-Plume Transition
			Negatively Buoyant Gas to Neutrally Buoyant Transition
		Gaussian Dispersion
			Weather Input
			Averaging Time
			Release Time
			Decision on Instantaneous or Continuous Release
			Pasquill-Gifford Model
				Puff model
				Plume Model
Chapter-9---Fire_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Fire
		Summary of Scenarios
		Ignition Sources
		Pyrophoric Materials
		Relevance and Effects of Ignition Sources
		Analysis of Ignition Sources
			Calculation Schemes for Static Electricity
			Streaming Current and Charge Balance
			Adiabatic Compression
			Cool Flame
		Ignition Probability
			Generic Ignition Probabilities
				Cox et al. (1990)
				Uijt de Haag et al. (TNO, Purple book, 2005)
				EGIG (European Gas Pipeline Incident Data Group, 2015)
			Ignition Delays Models
			UKOOA Ignition Model
		Fire Scenarios
			Flash Fire
				Modelling
					Hajek and Ludwig method (1960)
					Eisenberg method (1975)
			Pool Fires with Round or Equivalent Basis
				Modelling
					Input data
						Pool fire main parameters
					Burning rate and burning velocity
						Effect of wind on burning rate
					Instantaneous and continuous spill
					Transient pool formation
					Transient unconfined pool fire diameter
					Unconfined pool fire of a liquid flowing from a storage tank
					Pool fire on land: The flame
						Flame size
				Height of a highly emissive clear flame
				Flame tilt
				Flame elongation (drag)
				Trench Fires
					Flame height
					Flame elongation (drag)
					Flame tilt
						Height of a highly emissive clear flame
				Pool Fire Diameter on Water (Sea Surface)
					Diameter-Immediate ignition
					Diameter-Delayed ignition
						Continuous spill
						Discontinuous spill
					Gravity and inertial force-driven regime
					Large slicks and viscous forces-driven regime
						Surface tension-driven regime
						Flame length
						Maximum ignition delay for discontinuous spill
				Heat Transmission in Pool Fires
					The surface emissive power
						Luminous fires
						Sooty fires
						General fires
					The heat transfer equation
						View factors for solid flame model
						Screening methods
						View factors for solid flame model
						No-wind condition
						Wind condition
						Graphical view factors
				Recommended Incident Heat Fluxes
				Practical Data on Pool Fires
					Heat fluxes in hydrocarbons pool fire (FABIG, 2010)
					Pool fire of liquefied natural gas
					Pool fire of methanol
					Practical data of pool fire
				Leak Rate Categories for Fire Risk Assessment (FABIG, 2010)
				Jet Fire
					Scenario
					Fluid dynamics of jet fire
						Gas and vapour jet fires
						Liquid jet fires
						Flame stability
						Flame temperature
					Modelling
						No-wind scenario
							Flame length
							Flame lift-off distance
						Wind scenario
							API 521 Model
					Kalghatgi solid flame model
						Wind to discharge speed ratio
						Expanding jet data
						Source diameter
						Mass flow rate
						Vertical flame length
						Calculation of angle αB
						Calculation of angle α
						Calculation of LB
						Visible flame length
						Lift-off distance
						Flame widths
					Heat transfer
					Recommended incident heat fluxes
		Fire Damage to People
Chapter-10---Explosions_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Explosions
		Summary of Scenarios
		The Explosion
		Recall of key definitions
		Laminar Burning Velocity
		Flame Speed and Turbulent Velocity
		Explosion With Oxidisers Other Than Oxygen
		Confined Explosion: Deflagration and Detonation
			Deflagration
				Shepherd's model
				Practical data
				Deflagration of a gas pocket
				Cube root law
			Detonation
				Conditions for detonation
		Detonation in Pipes
			Length to Detonation
			Deflagration to Detonation Transition
		Reflected Shock Wave and Pressure Temporal-Spatial Distribution
			Maximum Overpressure in Pipes
		Semiconfined Explosion
			Semiconfined Explosions in Enclosures With Some Degree of Confinement
				Explosions in blast-resistant vessels and pipes with free openings not fitted with venting panels
				Explosions in blast-resistant structures protected with venting panels
		Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion
			Multienergy Model
				Summary of the MEM
		Obstructions
		Parallel plane confinement
		Ignition strength
			Outline placeholder
				Procedure to use the MEM model
				Instantaneous release: Van Buijtenen's model
				Dense gases
				Definition of D1 and D2
			Baker-Strehlow-Tang Model
				Summary of the BST method
					Congestion
					Potential explosion sites (PES)
					Reactivity (Zeeuwen and Wiekema, 1978)
					Confinement
					BST flame speed correlations
				Procedure to use the BST model
			Congestion Assessment Method
				Summary of the CAM method
					Fuel factor
					Blockage ratio
					Other affecting parameters
				Procedure to use the CAM model
		Vessels Burst
		Boiling Liquid Expansion Vapour Explosion
			Background
			BLEVE Scenarios
			BLEVE Phases
			BLEVE TNO Model
				Diameter of BLEVE
				Duration of fireball
				Heat radiation
			BLEVE Pressure Wave
			Fragments Generated by BLEVE
		Rapid Phase Transition (RPT)
			Modelling
		Thermal Runway
			Definitions
				Thermal runaway
				Time to thermal runaway
			Causes of Thermal Runaway
			Semenov Model
		Design and Operational Issues: Hot Spots
		Pressure Piling
			Definition
			Factors Influencing Pressure Piling
			Modelling
		Drag Loads
		Loads on Buildings
		Blast-Resistant Structures in the QRA Framework
			Blast-Resistant Buildings
			BRA Data and Design of Blast-Resistant Buildings
				Overpressure
				Cumulative and exceedance frequency
				Iso-contours charts
				Tabulated design accidental loads (DAL)
			Building Damage Probability Assessment
			Blast Effects on Process Equipment
		Hazardous Area Classification
			EN 60079-10-1
		Inerting
			Definitions
			Calculations
			Explosion Protection by Limiting Oxidant Concentrations
Chapter-11---Dust-Explosions_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Dust Explosions
		Powders Classification
		Dust Explosions Thermodynamics
			Semi-Confined Explosion
			Confined Explosion
				Maximum pressure
			Pressure Piling
			Pressure Rise Rate
			Characteristics of Explosivity
				Minimum ignition energy (MIE)
				Minimum explosive concentration (MEC)
				Minimum ignition temperature (MIT)
				Limiting oxidant concentration (LOC)
				Ignition severity (IS) and explosion severity (ES)
			Parameters of Influence
				Chemistry
				Size
				Humidity
				Turbulence
				Oxygen contents
				Initial cloud temperature
				Initial cloud pressure
				Glow temperature
				Hybrid mixtures
				Electrical resistivity
					The standard 61,241-2-2
					NFPA 77
				Ignition sources
		Explosion Inherent Hazard
		Dusts Explosivity Data
		Venting Devices
			Venting Devices for Items With AR 120
		Equipment Plants for Dust Processing
			Vessel-Type Equipment
			Pipe-Type Equipment
		HAZID of Equipment and Process Scenarios
			Pneumatic Transport
			Bucket Elevators
			Screw Conveyors
			Silos and Dust Collectors
				Inertisation
			Spray Dryers
				Spray dryer: Lesson learnt
		Quantified Risk Assessment
		Risk Assessment in the ATEX Framework
			Reference Standards
			Risk Assessment and ATEX Compliance
		Analysis of an Incident: Imperial Sugar Company Explosion
			The Site
			The Substances
			Analysis of Intrinsic Explosivity Parameters
			Production Flow Chart
			Process and Equipment
				Silos complex
				Belt conveyors
				Bucket elevators
				Screw conveyors
				Bosch packing building
				South packing building
				Bulk sugar building
			The Explosion: Description and Consequences Assessment
				Primary explosion
				The causes: The combustible material
				The causes: Ignition sources
				Sugar glow temperature
				Consequence assessment
				Secondary explosions
			Root Causes
Chapter-12---Quantitative-Risk-Assessment_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Quantitative Risk Assessment
		Definitions
			Risk Indices (RI)
			Location Specific Individual Risk (LSIR)
			Individual Risk Per Annum (IRPA)
			Maximum Individual Risk
			Average Individual Risk
			Potential Loss of Life (PLL) or Rate of Death (ROD)
			Fatal Accident Rate (FAR)
			ALARP
			Safety Integrity
			Safety Integrity Level (SIL)
		ALARP Model
			ALARP Limits for Workers and the Public
			ALARP Limits for Land-Use Planning
			FN Curves
		PLL from the FN Curve
		ALARP Demonstration-ICAF Method
		Parts Count
			QRA Release Models
				Gas releases
				Liquid releases
				Two phase releases
			Transient Analysis
				Total leaks frequency of 8 pipe (200mm, 55m)
				Total leaks frequency of 10 pipe (250mm, 5m)
				Total leaks frequency of 8 flanges
				Total leaks frequency of 10 flanges
				Total leaks frequency of 8 hand valves
				Total leaks frequency of 10 hand valves
				Total leaks frequency of 8 isolation valve
				Total leaks frequency of 10 isolation valve
				Total leaks frequency of fittings (50 hole)
				Total leaks frequency of flash drum (50mm hole)
				Total leaks frequency of heat exchanger (50mm hole)
				Total leaks frequency of filter (50mm hole)
				Parts count summary
Chapter-13---Structural-Dynamics-of-Buildings-Subje_2021_Process-Safety-Calc
	Structural Dynamics of Buildings Subject to Blast Loads
		Shock and Pressure Waves
		Box-Like Structure Model
		Blast Loads
			Side-on Overpressure
			Dynamic Pressure
			Stagnation Pressure
			Reflected Pressure
		Blast Parameters
			Decay Time of a Blast Wave
			Blast Front Velocity
			Decay Time of the Reflected Pressure of a Box-Like Structure
			Blast Wavelength
			Back Face Load
			Sides and Roof Average Load
		Design Criteria for Blast-Affected Building
			Definition of the Design Overpressure and Duration
				Iso-contour charts
				Tabulated design accidental loads (DAL)
			Selection of the Exceedance Frequency
			Standard Recommendations and Guidance
		Dynamic Blast Analysis of Buildings
			Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) Analysis
				Definition of the SDOF
				Behaviour of construction materials
			Biggs Idealised System
			Tabulated Transformation Factors
		The Blast Design
			Definition of Design Parameters
				Ductility ratio
				Dynamic increase factor (DIF)
				Hinge rotation
				Strength increase factor (SIF)
				Dynamic yield stress
				Allowable ductility ratio and support rotation
			Graphical Solution Chart
Chapter-14---Layer-of-Protection-Analysis_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Layer of Protection Analysis
		Definitions
		Layer of Protection Analysis (LOPA)
		Initiating Events
			External Initiating Events
			Equipment-Related Initiating Events
		Control station failures:
			Outline placeholder
				Mechanical failures
			Multiple Initiating Events
		Independent Protection Layers (IPLs)
			Requirements for IPLs
			Active IPLs
			Passive IPLs
			Vendor Safeguards
			Firefighting Systems
			Human IPLs
			Limits and Restrictions for IPLs
		SIF as an IPL
		Passive IPLs
		Operator's intervention
		Preventive IPLs vs mitigating IPLs
		Common cause failure
		Conditional Modifiers (CMs)
			Probability of Hazardous Atmosphere
			Ignition Probability
			Probability of a Flammable Atmosphere
				Normal operation
				Loss of containment
			Explosion Probability
			Probability of Personnel Presence
		Procedure of LOPA Execution for SIL Assignment
			Step 1: Definition of the Risk Target Frequencies
			Step 2: Data Collection and Data Integration
			Step 3: Impact Events Selection
			Step 4: Severity Level Assignment
			Step 5: Definition of the Initiating Causes
			Step 6: Identification of IPLs
			Step 7: Identification of Conditional Modifiers
			Step 8: Determination of Intermediate Event Likelihood (IEL) Calculation
			Step 9: Safety Integrity Level (SIL) Assignment
			Step 13: Mitigated Event Likelihood (MEL) Calculation
Chapter-15---Explosion-Protection-of-Vessels-and-_2021_Process-Safety-Calcul
	Explosion Protection of Vessels and Enclosures
		Scope
		Definitions
		Rules of Thumb
		Stress Analysis of Vessels and Related Structural Elements
			Maximum Allowable Working Pressure
				Cylindrical shells (longitudinal Joints)
				Spherical shells
				Conical and truncated-conical head
				Semiellipsoidal heads
				Torispherical heads (Fig. 15.3)
			Joint Efficiencies for Welded Joints
		Establishment of Reduced Pressure Pred
			NFPA 68
			Plates and Ducts (IChemE)
				Circular plates
				Rectangular or square plates
				Venting ducts
					Square duct into square plate
					Circular duct into circular plate
					Square duct into circular plate
					Circular duct into square plate
		Venting of Gas Explosions in Isolated Compact Enclosures
			NFPA 68 Method
				Low Pred enclosures (low panel inertia)
					Step 1-Calculate the effective hydraulic diameter, Dhe
					Step 2-Calculate factor phi1
					Step 3-Calculate factor phi2
					Step 4-Calculate the baseline turbulent flame enhancement factor λ
					Step 5-Calculate the enclosure length-to-diameter ratio L/D
					Step 6-Calculate the turbulent flame enhancement factor λ
					Step 7-Calculate the turbulent flame enhancement factor λ
					Step 8-Calculation of vent area Avo
					NFPA 68 gas-air mixture parameters
					Fireball dimension
			EN 14994 Method
				Gas explosion constant KG
		Venting of Dust Explosions in Isolated Compact Enclosures
			NFPA 68 Method
			EN 14991 and VDI 3673
			Protection of Interconnected Vessels
				Fireball dimension
		Actions on Supporting Structures of Vessels
		Vent Ducts
			Deflagration Venting With Vent Ducts
				Vent ducts in gas enclosures
				Vent ducts in dust enclosures
			Design of Vent Ducts
			Deflectors
				Design criteria
Chapter-16---Mitigation-of-Toxic-Risk_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Mitigation of Toxic Risk
		Scope
		Definitions
			Acute Toxicity (ECHA, 2017)
			Adverse Effect (McNaught and Wilkinson, IUPAC, 1997)
			Chronic Toxicity
			Exposure (McNaught and Wilkinson, IUPAC, 1997)
			Lethal Concentration (McNaught and Wilkinson, IUPAC, 1997)
			Lethal Dose (McNaught and Wilkinson, IUPAC, 1997)
			Toxicity (McNaught and Wilkinson, IUPAC, 1997)
		The Toxic Roadmap
		Acute Toxicity of Substances and Mixtures
			Acute Toxicity of Mixtures
		Toxicity Indices
			Emergency Response Planning Guidelines (ERPGs)
			Equivalence Between ERPGs and Probit Functions
			Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH) Indices
			Workplace Environmental Exposure Levels
				Threshold limit value-time-weighted average (TLV-TWA) (ACGIH, 2019)
				Threshold limit value-short-term exposure limit (TLV-STEL) (ACGIH, 2019)
				Threshold limit value-ceiling (TLV-C) (ACGIH, 2019)
				Recommended exposure limit (REL) value
				Permissible recommended exposure limit (REL) value
			Rationale and Interpretation
		Calculations for Mixtures of Toxic Chemicals
			Conversion of Concentration Units
			TLV of Gas and Liquid Mixtures
				Gas mixtures with similar toxicological effects on the same target organ(s)
				Liquid mixtures with similar toxicological effects on the same target organ(s)
		Quantitative Methods for Offsite Consequence Management
			DOT Emergency Protective Distances
				Initial isolation distance
				Protective action distances
			EPA Offsite Consequence Analysis (OCA) (EPA, 2009)
				Toxic gases
				Toxic liquids
			Summary of the Procedure for the Offsite Consequence Analysis
				Generic other than ammonia, chlorine, and sulphur dioxide
				Ammonia, chlorine, and sulphur dioxide
		Techniques of Toxic Risk Mitigation
			Detection and Isolation
				Identification of toxic concentration thresholds
				Response time and process safety time
			Mitigation Techniques
Chapter-17---Integrity-Management-of-Equipment-Su_2021_Process-Safety-Calcul
	Integrity Management of Equipment Subject to Fires
		Scope
		Fire on Equipment and Structures
			Pool Fires
				Pool fires in open spaces
				Pool fires in closed spaces
				Ventilation-controlled vs fuel-controlled: A determination method
			Jet Fires
				Jet fires in open spaces
				Jet fires in closed spaces
			Incident and Absorbed Heat Fluxes by Vessels and Equipment
				General equation of absorbed heat flux
				Design incident and absorbed heat fluxes
			Heat Absorbed by Vessels Containing Liquids: Alternative Method
				Fire-protected and promptly drained vessels (uninsulated)
				Fire-unprotected vessels
				Determination of real surface exposed to fire
			Transient Temperature and Heat Absorbed by Steel Surfaces Exposed to Fire-Unprotected Surfaces
			Protected Surfaces with No Heat Transfer to Fluid
		Criteria for Depressurisation
			Fire Scenario
			Heat Transfer to Fluid
			Temperature Profiles
				Wetted shells
				Unwetted shells
			Pressure Profile
			Stress Calculation and Tensile Strength Comparison
Index_2021_Process-Safety-Calculations
	Index
		A
		B
		C
		D
		E
		F
		G
		H
		I
		J
		K
		L
		M
		N
		O
		P
		Q
		R
		S
		T
		U
		V
		W
		Y
		Z