Handbook of Hygiene Control in the Food Industry (Woodhead Publishing in Food Science and Technology)

Contents......Page 6
Contributor contact details......Page 18
Preface......Page 24
1.1 Introduction: the evolution of food hygiene......Page 26
1.2 Definitions of hygiene......Page 36
1.3 Sources of food contamination......Page 38
1.4 Hygiene control measures in food processing......Page 42
1.5 Future trends......Page 46
1.6 References......Page 49
Part I Risks......Page 54
2.1 Introduction: the risk of microbial foodborne disease......Page 56
2.2 The control of food safety......Page 62
2.3 Using food safety objectives to manage microbial risks......Page 63
2.5 References......Page 69
3.1 Introduction: biofilm formation and detection......Page 71
3.2 Pathogens in biofilms......Page 75
3.3 Biofilms and microbial contamination in food processing......Page 82
3.4 Prevention of biofilm formation and biofilm removal......Page 83
3.5 Future trends......Page 85
3.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 86
3.7 References......Page 87
4.1 Introduction: disinfection methods......Page 94
4.2 Factors influencing the effectiveness of cleaning and disinfection......Page 95
4.3 Strategies for optimisation of cleaning and disinfection......Page 103
4.4 Types of pathogen response......Page 107
4.5 Predicting microbial resistance......Page 109
4.6 Future trends......Page 111
4.8 References......Page 113
5.1 Introduction......Page 118
5.2 Factors affecting aerosol contamination......Page 119
5.3 Aerosol generation......Page 120
5.4 Aerosol dispersal......Page 121
5.5 Ways to reduce the risk from airborne contamination......Page 123
5.7 Sources of further information and advice......Page 125
5.8 References......Page 126
6.1 Introduction......Page 128
6.2 Risk perceptions of cunsumers are not the same as technical risk assessments......Page 129
6.3 Risk perception and barriers to effective risk communication......Page 132
6.4 Developing an effective risk communication strategy......Page 133
6.6 The need for more intensive cooperation between natural and social scientists......Page 137
6.7 Conclusions......Page 140
6.8 References......Page 141
Part II Improving design......Page 146
7.1 Introduction: sanitation and design......Page 148
7.2 Applying the HACCP concept to building design......Page 150
7.3 Site selection and plant layout......Page 152
7.5 Landscaping and the surrounding area......Page 153
7.6 Roof areas......Page 155
7.7 Loading bays......Page 156
7.8 Entry/exit points and external lighting......Page 157
7.9 Inside the plant......Page 158
7.10 Future trends......Page 170
7.11 Bibliography......Page 172
8.1 Introduction......Page 173
8.2 Barrier 1: Site......Page 175
8.3 Barrier 2: Factory building......Page 176
8.4 Barrier 3: High-care/risk areas......Page 180
8.5 Barrier 4: Finished product enclosure......Page 190
8.6 References......Page 192
9.2 What are floors made of?......Page 193
9.3 Requirements for flooring materials......Page 198
9.4 Test methods......Page 203
9.5 Construction of floors......Page 205
9.7 Sources of further information and advice......Page 206
9.8 References......Page 207
10.2 Exterior walls......Page 210
10.3 Interior walls......Page 213
10.4 Bibliography......Page 215
11.1 Introduction: the hygienic performance of closed equipment......Page 216
11.2 The importance of flow parameters in hygienic performance......Page 217
11.3 Computational fluid dynamics models for optimising hygiene......Page 222
11.4 Applications of computational fluid dynamics in improved hygienic design......Page 225
11.5 Future trends......Page 232
11.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 233
11.7 References......Page 234
12.1 Introduction......Page 237
12.2 Heat exchanger design......Page 238
12.3 Developments in heat exchanger design......Page 240
12.4 Future trends......Page 242
12.5 Conclusions......Page 243
12.6 References......Page 244
13.2 Dry particulate materials and hygienic processing......Page 245
13.3 Cleaning regimes......Page 246
13.4 Design principles......Page 247
13.5 Types of equipment in dry material handling areas......Page 251
13.7 References......Page 252
14.1 Introduction......Page 253
14.3 Application of ISO 14159......Page 254
14.4 Other standards and guidelines......Page 262
14.5 Conclusion......Page 263
15.1 Introduction......Page 264
15.2 Hygienic zoning......Page 265
15.3 Hygienic electrical design principles......Page 267
15.4 Installation requirements for medium hygiene areas......Page 269
15.5 Installation requirements for high-hygiene areas......Page 275
15.6 General requirements for construction materials......Page 282
15.7 Future trends......Page 286
15.9 Appendix: abbreviations......Page 287
16.2 Valve types......Page 288
16.3 Hygienic aspects of valve design......Page 293
16.4 Current guidelines, standards, and references......Page 297
17.2 Piping design: good practice......Page 298
17.3 Materials of construction......Page 299
17.4 Product recovery......Page 300
17.5 Microbial growth in piping systems......Page 301
17.6 Plant design......Page 302
17.7 References......Page 303
18.2 Components used in pumps......Page 304
18.3 Cleanability, surface finish and other requirements......Page 309
18.5 Summary......Page 310
18.6 Bibliography......Page 311
19.1 Introduction......Page 312
19.2 Sensor types......Page 314
19.3 Common industrial applications and future trends......Page 323
19.4 References......Page 326
Part III Improving hygiene management and methods......Page 332
20.1 Introduction......Page 334
20.2 Quality management and risk assessment......Page 337
20.3 Examples of risk assessments......Page 341
20.4 Future trends......Page 346
20.6 References......Page 347
21.1 Introduction......Page 349
21.2 Effective manufacturing operations and food control......Page 352
21.3 Personnel and training......Page 354
21.5 Premises, equipment, product and process design......Page 355
21.6 Manufacturing and operating procedures......Page 356
21.7 Ingredients and packaging materials......Page 357
21.8 Managing prodiuction operations: intermediate and finished products......Page 360
21.9 Storage and movement of product......Page 361
21.10 Special requirements for certain foods......Page 362
21.11 Rejection of product and complaints handling......Page 365
21.12 Product recall and other emergency procedures......Page 367
21.14 Good control laboratory practice (GLP)......Page 369
21.15 Future trends......Page 371
21.16 References......Page 372
22.1 Introduction: defining standard operating propcedures (SOPs)......Page 373
22.2 They key components of SOPs and SOP programs......Page 374
22.3 SOP requirements under regulatory HACCP programs......Page 380
22.4 Common problems in implementing SOPs effectively......Page 383
22.5 Sources of further information......Page 385
22.6 References......Page 386
23.1 Introduction......Page 388
23.2 Food allergy and product safety......Page 389
23.3 Management of food allergy risks......Page 391
23.4 Role of allergen detection and other considerations......Page 394
23.5 Future trends......Page 399
23.6 References......Page 400
24.1 Introduction......Page 403
24.2 Potential microbiological problems with packaging......Page 405
24.3 Improving hygienic production and management......Page 411
24.4 Future trends......Page 416
24.6 References......Page 417
25.2 Legislation......Page 421
25.3 Implementation of the current legislation......Page 422
25.4 Examples......Page 423
25.5 Temperature management......Page 424
25.6 Avoiding cross-contamination......Page 428
25.7 Future trends......Page 429
25.9 References and notes......Page 430
26.1 Introduction......Page 432
26.2 The grain bulk as an ecosystem......Page 433
26.3 Moisture migration in the grain bulk......Page 436
26.4 Dry- and wet-grain heating......Page 437
26.5 Insects in stored products......Page 439
26.6 Measures of control......Page 442
26.7 Future trends......Page 448
26.9 Bibliography......Page 449
27.1 Introduction: limitations in current CIP systems......Page 450
27.2 Cleaning and disinfection parameters......Page 451
27.3 Factors determining the effectiveness of a CIP system......Page 454
27.4 Improving CIP systems......Page 463
27.5 Future trends......Page 468
27.6 References and further reading......Page 469
28.1 Introduction......Page 470
28.2 Best practices in developing an effective COP process......Page 471
28.3 Defining the process......Page 472
28.4 Elaboration of process parameters......Page 473
28.5 Validation......Page 488
28.6 Records and process documentation......Page 489
28.7 Summary......Page 490
28.8 Bibliography......Page 491
29.1 Introduction......Page 493
29.2 Processing effects on fouling and cleaning......Page 497
29.3 Investigations into cleaning process parameters......Page 504
29.4 Ways of improving cleaning......Page 511
29.5 Conclusions......Page 515
29.7 References......Page 516
30.1 Introduction to cleaning tanks......Page 522
30.2 Factors affecting cleaning efficacy......Page 523
30.3 Hygienic design test methods......Page 526
30.4 Detecting the cleanliness of tanks......Page 527
30.5 Using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to assess cleanability of closed process lines......Page 528
30.7 References......Page 529
31.1 Introduction......Page 532
31.2 Historical uses of ozone......Page 534
31.4 Undesirable effects of ozone......Page 535
31.5 Practical applications of ozone......Page 536
31.8 Sources of further information and advice......Page 538
31.9 References......Page 539
32.1 Introduction......Page 541
32.2 Enzyme-based cleaning procedures......Page 543
32.3 Laboratory trials of enzyme-based cleaning......Page 547
32.4 Field trials......Page 556
32.5 Risks......Page 559
32.6 Future trends......Page 560
32.7 References......Page 562
33.1 Introduction to contamination analysis in the food industry......Page 564
33.2 Different types of contamination analyses......Page 565
33.3 Listeria monocytogenes contamination in food processing environments......Page 568
33.4 Psychtotrophic lactic acid bacterium contamination in meat processing environments......Page 572
33.5 Applying knowledge from contamination analysis to improve hygienic food manufacturing......Page 575
33.8 References......Page 576
34.1 Introduction......Page 581
34.2 Microorganisms......Page 582
34.3 Hygienic surfaces......Page 585
34.4 Organic salt......Page 589
34.5 Future trends......Page 592
34.8 References......Page 593
35.1 Introduction......Page 597
35.2 Background......Page 598
35.3 Current approaches to monitoring......Page 599
35.4 Laboratory/pilot-scale studies......Page 606
35.5 Industry requirements and potential benefits......Page 609
35.7 Conclusions......Page 610
35.8 References......Page 611
36.1 Introduction......Page 613
36.2 Microbiological surface sampling......Page 621
36.3 Non-microbiological surface sampling......Page 628
36.4 Monitoring/sampling protocols and strategies......Page 633
36.5 Future trends......Page 639
36.6 References......Page 641
37.1 Introduction......Page 644
37.2 Microbial viability in the air......Page 645
37.3 Why, how and what to sample......Page 646
37.4 Bioaerosols and bioaerosol samplers......Page 647
37.5 Air sampling methods......Page 649
37.6 Bioaerosol assay methods......Page 657
37.7 Interpretation of bioaerosol results......Page 660
37.8 Future trends......Page 661
37.9 References and further reading......Page 662
38.1 Introduction......Page 666
38.2 Types of biocidal products......Page 667
38.3 Criteria for testing biocidal action......Page 676
38.4 Tests for disinfectants and sanitisers......Page 681
38.5 Test limitations and scope for improvement......Page 686
38.6 Future trends......Page 688
38.7 Sources of further information and advice......Page 689
38.8 References......Page 690
39.1 Introduction......Page 697
39.2 General issues in tracing of cleaning solutions and hygiene products......Page 698
39.3 Particular issues in tracing of hygiene products......Page 700
39.5 Future trends......Page 708
40.1 Introduction......Page 709
40.3 Auditing and the hierarchy of a controlled system......Page 711
40.4 Purposes of an auditing system......Page 713
40.5 Designing a system for improvement audits......Page 714
40.6 Performing the audit......Page 715
40.7 References......Page 721
Index......Page 722