Toxicological profiles - Ammonia

DRAFT TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR AMMONIA......Page 1
DISCLAIMER......Page 2
UPDATE STATEMENT......Page 3
FOREWORD......Page 4
QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS......Page 6
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 8
PEER REVIEW......Page 9
CONTENTS......Page 10
LIST OF FIGURES......Page 14
LIST OF TABLES......Page 15
1.1 WHAT IS AMMONIA?......Page 16
1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO AMMONIA WHEN IT ENTERS THE ENVIRONMENT?......Page 17
1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO AMMONIA?......Page 18
1.4 HOW CAN AMMONIA ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY?......Page 19
1.5 HOW CAN AMMONIA AFFECT MY HEALTH?......Page 20
1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO AMMONIA?......Page 21
1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN......Page 22
1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?......Page 23
1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?......Page 24
2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO AMMONIA IN THE UNITED STATES......Page 26
2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS......Page 27
2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS (MRLs)......Page 29
3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE......Page 33
3.2.1.1 Death......Page 35
3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects......Page 36
3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 61
3.2.1.6 Developmental Effects......Page 62
3.2.2.1 Death......Page 63
3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects......Page 64
3.2.2.4 Neurological Effects......Page 74
3.2.2.7 Cancer......Page 76
3.2.3.2 Systemic Effects......Page 77
3.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 81
3.3 GENOTOXICITY......Page 82
3.4.1.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 85
3.4.1.2 Oral Exposure......Page 86
3.4.2.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 87
3.4.2.2 Oral Exposure......Page 88
3.4.3 Metabolism......Page 89
3.4.4.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 90
3.4.4.2 Oral Exposure......Page 93
3.4.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models......Page 94
3.5.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity......Page 97
3.5.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations......Page 98
3.6 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS......Page 99
3.7 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY......Page 100
3.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT......Page 103
3.8.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Ammonia......Page 104
3.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS......Page 105
3.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE......Page 106
3.11.2 Reducing Body Burden......Page 107
3.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Ammonia......Page 108
3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs......Page 110
3.12.3 Ongoing Studies......Page 117
4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES......Page 120
5.1 PRODUCTION......Page 124
5.4 DISPOSAL......Page 128
6.1 OVERVIEW......Page 130
6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 134
6.2.1 Air......Page 139
6.2.2 Water......Page 140
6.3ENVIRONMENTAL FATE......Page 141
6.3.1 Transport and Partitioning......Page 142
6.3.2.1 Air......Page 144
6.3.2.4 Other Media......Page 145
6.4.1 Air......Page 146
6.4.2 Water......Page 148
6.4.4 Other Environmental Media......Page 150
6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE......Page 151
6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN......Page 152
6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES......Page 153
6.8.1 Identification of Data Needs......Page 154
6.8.2 Ongoing Studies......Page 156
7.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS......Page 160
7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES......Page 162
7.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE......Page 167
7.3.2 Ongoing Studies......Page 168
8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES......Page 171
9. REFERENCES......Page 179
Case Report......Page 222
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health......Page 223
Modifying Factor......Page 224
Physiologically Based Pharmacodynamic (PBPD) Model......Page 225
Reproductive Toxicity......Page 226
Uncertainty Factor (UF)......Page 227
Xenobiotic......Page 228
ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVEL AND WORKSHEETS......Page 229
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL WORKSHEET......Page 231
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL WORKSHEET......Page 233
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL WORKSHEET......Page 235
USER'S GUIDE......Page 237
ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS......Page 244