Learning and Memory A Comprehensive Reference. Cognitive Psychology of Memory

Permission Acknowledgement, Page xxi.pdf......Page 0
Cognitive Approaches to Memory......Page 8
Organization of the Volume......Page 9
References......Page 11
Varieties of Memory......Page 13
Cherry’s Dichotic Listening Studies......Page 15
The Filter Model and the Debate between Early and Late Selection Theories......Page 16
Working Memory and Attention......Page 18
Attention and Encoding......Page 20
Attention and Retrieval......Page 22
Attention and Implicit Memory......Page 23
Attention and Procedural Learning......Page 24
Concluding Comments......Page 25
References......Page 26
Introduction......Page 29
Memory for Stimuli As Opposed to Ideas......Page 30
Memory Even for Unattended Stimuli......Page 31
Understanding Qualia and Consciousness......Page 32
Eliminating Contamination from Nonsensory Aspects of Cognition......Page 33
Partial-Report Procedures......Page 34
Two Phases of Sensory Memory with Different Rates of Decay......Page 35
Comments on the Future of Research on Sensory Memory......Page 36
References......Page 37
Introduction......Page 39
The Phonological Loop......Page 40
Empirical phenomena......Page 41
A computational model of the phonological loop......Page 42
The phonological loop and language......Page 43
Theory and empirical phenomena......Page 45
The supervisory attentional system......Page 47
Complex memory span......Page 48
The Episodic Buffer......Page 49
Attentional based models......Page 51
The resource-sharing model......Page 52
Overview......Page 53
References......Page 54
Tasks......Page 58
Results......Page 59
Associative chaining......Page 62
Perturbation model......Page 64
Primacy model......Page 65
OSCAR......Page 66
Acknowledgments......Page 67
References......Page 68
Repetition and Spacing Effects......Page 69
Continuity, Discontinuity, and Repetition......Page 70
Judgments of Recency......Page 71
Judgments of Frequency......Page 72
Effects of repetition on nonrepeated items......Page 73
Superadditive effects of repetition on memory......Page 74
Spacing Effects in Memory......Page 75
Deficient-Processing Accounts......Page 76
Encoding-Variability Accounts......Page 77
Multiprocess Accounts......Page 78
Conclusion......Page 79
References......Page 80
Coding Processes......Page 83
The Function of a Code in Psychological Theory......Page 84
Transfer Paradigms......Page 85
Retrieval Cuing......Page 86
Materials Effects......Page 87
Decision Time......Page 88
Orienting Tasks......Page 89
Neural Indices of the Code......Page 90
Intent to Remember......Page 92
Types of Processing......Page 93
Self-generation......Page 94
Distinctive processing......Page 95
Prior Knowledge......Page 96
The Structural Metaphor......Page 97
Working memory......Page 98
Memory systems......Page 99
Process Metaphor......Page 100
Data-driven and conceptually driven processing......Page 101
Summary of Process Metaphor......Page 102
Summary of Coding Processes......Page 103
References......Page 104
Introduction to Imagery and Definitions of Mental Imagery......Page 107
Debate on the Nature of Representations......Page 108
Perceptual and Conceptual Representations: Visual Traces and Generated Images......Page 109
Different Kinds of Mental Images......Page 110
General, Specific, Contextual, and Episodic-Autobiographical Images......Page 111
Paivio’s Dual-Code Theory......Page 112
Kosslyn’s Visual Buffer......Page 113
The Visuospatial Working Memory Approach......Page 114
Paradigms in the Study of Mental Imagery and Memory......Page 116
Cognitive Paradigms of Mental Imagery Processes......Page 117
Neural Implications......Page 119
Imagery Value......Page 120
Educational and Other Applied Implications......Page 121
References......Page 125
Introduction......Page 128
Organizing Principles......Page 129
Organizational Theories......Page 130
Representational Theories......Page 131
Affective Response Theories......Page 132
Hybrid Theories......Page 133
von Restorff’s Original Work......Page 134
The Humor Effect......Page 135
The Word Frequency Effect......Page 136
The Word Length Effect......Page 137
The Picture Superiority Effect......Page 138
False Memory and the Distinctiveness Heuristic......Page 139
The Modality Effect......Page 140
Emotional Words......Page 141
Summary and Conclusions......Page 142
References......Page 144
Mnemonic Processes......Page 148
Mental Imagery......Page 149
The Method of Loci......Page 150
The Peg-Word Method......Page 151
The Keyword Method......Page 152
Categorical and Schematic Organization......Page 153
Summary of Mnemonics and Mnemonic Processes......Page 154
Practical Issues......Page 155
References......Page 156
Introduction......Page 160
Environmental Shape......Page 161
Microgenesis of Spatial Knowledge......Page 162
Hierarchical......Page 163
Spatial Reference Systems......Page 165
Navigation and Spatial Updating......Page 167
Models of Spatial Memory and Navigation......Page 170
How Children Use Objects and Landmarks......Page 171
Cognitive Neuroscience of Spatial Memory......Page 173
Summary and Prospectus......Page 175
References......Page 176
Forgetting and Its Adaptive Value......Page 182
The Characteristics of Forgetting......Page 183
Forgetting’s Mathematical Form......Page 184
Determinants of Forgetting Rates......Page 185
Decay......Page 186
Interference: Trace Degradation......Page 187
Interference: Cue Impairment......Page 188
Cue Availability......Page 190
Retrieval-Induced Inhibition......Page 192
Motivated Forgetting......Page 193
Conclusions......Page 194
References......Page 195
Retrieval Competition......Page 198
Inhibitory Mechanisms......Page 199
The mixed-list paradigm......Page 201
Relearning and interference paradigms......Page 203
Retrieval-practice paradigm......Page 204
Directed Forgetting......Page 207
List-method directed forgetting......Page 208
Item-method directed forgetting......Page 210
Think/No-Think Impairment......Page 211
Beneficial and detrimental effects of cuing......Page 213
Retrieval-induced forgetting......Page 215
Directed forgetting......Page 216
Conclusions......Page 218
References......Page 220
False Memories......Page 224
False Memory for Words: The Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm......Page 225
Eyewitness Suggestibility: The Misinformation Paradigm......Page 228
Verbal Overshadowing......Page 230
Misattributions of Familiarity......Page 231
Imagination Inflation......Page 233
Implanted Autobiographical Memories......Page 235
Connections Across False Memory Paradigms......Page 237
Conclusions......Page 238
References......Page 239
Memory in and about Affect......Page 242
Memory in Affect......Page 243
Affect Priming and Affect-as-Information......Page 244
Processing Consequences of Affect......Page 245
Cognitive Benefits of Mild Dysphoria for Eyewitness Memory......Page 246
Mood Congruence and the Affect Infusion Model......Page 247
Mood congruence in memory......Page 248
Mood congruence in self-judgments......Page 249
Mood congruence in person perception......Page 250
Strengths and Shortcomings of the Affect Infusion Model......Page 251
Memory about Affect......Page 252
Remembering and Forgetting Trauma......Page 253
False and Recovered Memories......Page 254
Underestimation of Prior Remembering......Page 255
Discovered or False Memories?......Page 256
Corroborative Evidence of Abuse......Page 257
Affect priming......Page 258
Affect-as-information......Page 259
References......Page 260
Retrieval Processes in Memory......Page 264
Task Differences - The Role of Retrieval Cues......Page 265
The Encoding Specificity Principle......Page 266
Place-dependent memory......Page 267
Mood-dependent memory......Page 268
The Transfer-Appropriate Processing Framework......Page 270
Explicit versus Implicit Memory......Page 271
Remembering and Knowing......Page 273
Repeated Retrieval......Page 274
Retrieval in a Social Context......Page 278
Retrieval Errors and Other Retrieval Phenomena......Page 281
References......Page 283
Introduction......Page 287
The Paradigm......Page 288
The Objectivity of Subjective Experiences of Consciousness......Page 289
Experimental Manipulations......Page 290
Special Populations......Page 291
Episodic and Semantic Memory Systems......Page 292
Recollection and familiarity......Page 294
Further Empirical Extensions and Theoretical Issues......Page 295
Theoretical Evaluation......Page 303
References......Page 304
Processes Involved in Remembering......Page 308
Retrieval Cues and Retrieval-Encoding Interactions......Page 309
A Schematic Framework......Page 310
Deciding Whether to Initiate or Forgo a Memory Search......Page 311
Choosing a Search Strategy......Page 312
Specifying the Initial Context of Search and Generating Internal Retrieval Cues......Page 313
Evaluating the Correctness of Retrieved Information......Page 315
Inhibiting Wrong/Irrelevant Information......Page 317
Deciding Whether or Not to Report an Answer......Page 318
Deciding on the Grain Size of the Reported Answer......Page 320
References......Page 321
Source Monitoring......Page 326
Underlying Assumptions Regarding Basic Mechanisms of Memory......Page 327
Johnson and Raye’s Reality Monitoring Model......Page 328
Basic Mechanisms......Page 329
Measures of Source Monitoring......Page 332
Temporal Source Monitoring......Page 333
Affect and Source Monitoring......Page 334
Developmental Changes in Children’s Source Monitoring......Page 335
The Neuroscience of Source Monitoring......Page 336
Dual-Process Models of Recognition Memory and the Remember/Know Distinction......Page 337
The Eyewitness Misinformation Effect......Page 338
Other Fluency-Based False Memories......Page 339
The Knew-It-All-Along Effect......Page 340
The Mere Exposure Effect......Page 341
Interpersonal Source Monitoring......Page 342
Falsifiability......Page 343
References......Page 344
Metamemory......Page 349
Domain and cue familiarity......Page 351
Tip-of-the-Tongue States......Page 352
Blocking......Page 353
Judgments of Learning......Page 354
Self-fulfilling prophecy hypothesis......Page 355
Status of theories for the delayed-judgment-of-learning effect......Page 356
Theories of the underconfidence-with-practice effect......Page 357
Function of judgments of learning......Page 358
Remember/Know Judgments......Page 359
References......Page 360
Challenges of Déjà Vu Research......Page 363
Prospective Surveys......Page 364
Physical and Psychological Variables Related to Déjà Vu......Page 365
Physiopathology and Déjà Vu......Page 367
Neurological Explanations......Page 368
Implicit Memory Explanations......Page 369
Double Perception Explanations......Page 371
References......Page 372
Tip of the Tongue Experience......Page 376
Eliciting and Measuring TOTs......Page 377
Priming......Page 378
Partial Target Word Information......Page 379
Resolution Probability......Page 380
Resolution through Cueing......Page 381
Inferential Explanations......Page 382
Age......Page 383
References......Page 384
What Is an ROC?......Page 387
Why Bother with ROCs?......Page 389
High-Threshold Model......Page 390
High-Low Threshold Model......Page 391
Evaluation......Page 393
Signal Detection Models......Page 394
Unequal-Variance Signal Detection Model......Page 396
Two-Dimensional Signal Detection Model......Page 397
Sum-Difference Theory of Remembering and Knowing......Page 398
Evaluation......Page 399
Dual-Process Signal Detection Model......Page 402
Variable-Recollection Dual-Process Model......Page 405
Some-or-None Model......Page 406
Mixture Model......Page 407
Evaluation......Page 408
Alternative Theoretical Frameworks......Page 410
References......Page 412
Introduction......Page 415
Item Recognition for Subspan Lists......Page 416
The Extralist Feature Effect......Page 420
Item Recognition for Supraspan Lists......Page 421
Regularities of Item Recognition......Page 422
Dual-Process Views of Recognition......Page 424
Judgments of Event Frequency......Page 425
Associative Recognition......Page 427
Cued Recall......Page 428
A Comparison of Item versus Associative Recognition and Cued Recall......Page 429
Analyses of Interresponse Times in Free Recall......Page 430
The Search of Associative Memory Model......Page 432
The Search Set......Page 433
Serial Recall......Page 434
Defining the Search Set......Page 436
Contradiction and Knowing Not......Page 437
Temporal Dynamics and Models of Memory......Page 438
References......Page 439
Introduction......Page 443
The ACT Model......Page 446
The SAM Model and Related Models......Page 451
The REM Model......Page 454
Neural Network Approaches......Page 457
Models for Serial Order Memory......Page 460
Concluding Remarks......Page 461
References......Page 462
Associative Retrieval Processes in Episodic Memory......Page 465
Association and Context......Page 466
Associative Processes in Free Recall......Page 467
Retrieval Dynamics in Free Recall......Page 468
Normal Aging Affects Contiguity but Not Recency......Page 470
Long-Range Interitem Associations......Page 472
Memory Errors Reveal Associative Processes......Page 473
Intrusions in Serial and Probed Recall......Page 474
Intrusions in Paired-Associate Recall......Page 475
Associative Processes in Item Recognition......Page 477
Theories of Episodic Association......Page 478
Chaining Theory......Page 479
Working Memory Buffers and Dual Store Theory......Page 481
Hierarchical Association Theory......Page 482
Contextual Retrieval Theory......Page 483
Conclusions and Open Questions......Page 484
References......Page 485
A Taxonomic Distinction: Episodic and Semantic Memory......Page 489
Subjective Awareness......Page 490
Retrieval Mode......Page 492
The Episodic Memory System......Page 493
Converging Evidence for the Episodic Memory System......Page 494
Neuropsychology......Page 495
Functional Neuroimaging......Page 496
Development of Episodic Memory: The Magic Number 4±1......Page 498
Episodic Memory and Mental Time Travel......Page 499
Functional Neuroimaging......Page 500
Is Episodic Memory Uniquely Human?......Page 502
References......Page 504
Semantic Memory......Page 508
Network Approaches......Page 509
Feature Analytic Approaches......Page 513
Concept Learning and Categorization......Page 515
Grounding Semantics in Analyses of Large-Scale Databases......Page 517
Grounding Semantics in Perceptual Motor Systems......Page 518
Measuring Semantic Representations and Processes: Insights from Semantic Priming Studies......Page 519
The Interplay Between Semantics and Episodic Memory......Page 522
Category-Specific Deficits......Page 524
Semantic Dementia......Page 525
Neuroimaging......Page 526
References......Page 528
Introduction......Page 532
Understanding and explanation......Page 533
Prototype view......Page 534
Exemplar view......Page 536
Combined Models......Page 537
Beyond Classification and Featural Representations......Page 538
Category Learning Beyond Classification......Page 539
The Rational Model of categorization......Page 541
SUSTAIN......Page 542
Relational information......Page 543
Knowledge......Page 544
Directions for Providing Integration......Page 545
Problem Solving......Page 546
Problem solving and category learning......Page 547
Language......Page 548
Categorization and cognitive individuation......Page 549
References......Page 550
What Is Language, and What Makes It a Unique Learning Problem?......Page 554
Why Is Language Hard to Learn?......Page 555
The Context of Language-Learning ‘in the Wild’......Page 556
Are There Critical Periods for Learning?......Page 557
Summary......Page 558
What categories are infants prepared to learn? Insights from signed languages......Page 559
What do infants know about words?......Page 560
Beyond Words: Learning Phrase Structure and Lexical-Syntactic Categories......Page 561
New Math: Populating the Lexicon......Page 562
Inferring the Meaning Behind the Words......Page 563
Combinatorial Explosion: Putting Words Together......Page 564
Learning the Nuances......Page 566
Learning the nuances: reference, pragmatics, and implicature......Page 567
Becoming an expert language user......Page 568
Conclusions......Page 569
References......Page 570
Introduction......Page 575
Goals and Structure of the Chapter......Page 576
Transfer Theories at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century......Page 577
Serial Learning Analysis......Page 578
One-component models......Page 579
Transfer and Expertise: Effects of First-Task Practice on Transfer of Paired-Associate Learning......Page 581
Johnson’s Coding Theory......Page 582
An Overview of Production-System Models......Page 584
Kieras, Polson, and Bovair’s Theory of Transfer......Page 585
Singley and Anderson’s Theory of Transfer......Page 586
The Doctrine of Formal Discipline Revisited......Page 588
Summary and Concluding Remarks......Page 590
References......Page 591
Implicit Learning......Page 593
Learning Rules......Page 594
The Instance-Based or Episodic Account......Page 595
The Sensitivity to Statistical Regularities......Page 596
The Phenomenon of Transfer: The Data......Page 597
Explicit inferences during the test?......Page 598
Disentangling rules and abstraction......Page 599
A Provisional Conclusion......Page 600
Adjacent and nonadjacent dependencies......Page 601
Does learning depend on materials?......Page 602
Computing statistics?......Page 603
Are statistical computations a necessary prerequisite?......Page 604
Is attention necessary?......Page 605
The Shanks and St. John sensitivity criterion......Page 606
An intractable issue?......Page 607
The lack of control......Page 608
Processing Fluency and Conscious Experience......Page 609
Summary and Discussion......Page 610
Exploiting our Knowledge about Implicit Learning......Page 611
Discussion: About Nativism and Empiricism......Page 612
References......Page 613
Introduction......Page 618
Influences of Explicit Versus Implicit Memory......Page 619
Priming: Automatic/Independent of Attention?......Page 621
Priming: Modulated by Attention......Page 622
Neural Mechanisms of Top-Down Attentional Modulation......Page 624
Stimulus Specificity......Page 625
Response Specificity......Page 627
Negative Priming......Page 629
Familiar Versus Unfamiliar Stimuli......Page 630
Sensitivity Versus Bias......Page 631
Correlations between Behavioral and Neural Priming......Page 632
Summary and Conclusions......Page 635
References......Page 636
Introduction and Definition of the Field......Page 640
Motor Learning: Acquisition of Procedural Knowledge......Page 641
Technology......Page 642
Two Important Papers......Page 643
Adams’s Theory......Page 644
Schema Theory......Page 645
Fast versus slow actions......Page 646
Learning parameters versus learning programs......Page 647
Contextual Interference......Page 648
Action reconstruction processing......Page 649
Meta-memory misattributions......Page 651
Timing of knowledge results......Page 652
Frequency of knowledge results......Page 653
The roles of knowledge results......Page 654
References......Page 655
The Role of Sleep in Memory Consolidation......Page 658
Stages of Sleep......Page 659
Types of Memory......Page 660
Visual Discrimination Learning......Page 661
Auditory Learning......Page 663
Motor Memory......Page 664
Episodic Memory......Page 668
Sleep Spindles......Page 673
Slow Waves......Page 674
Theta Rhythm......Page 675
Neurohormones and Neurotransmitters......Page 676
References......Page 677
Paradox of Infant Memory......Page 681
Historical Perspectives......Page 682
Visual Recognition Memory......Page 683
Operant Conditioning......Page 684
Deferred Imitation......Page 687
Reminders......Page 688
Reactivation......Page 689
Reinstatement......Page 691
Accessibility......Page 693
Context......Page 695
Latent Learning......Page 696
Spacing Effects......Page 698
Implicit and Explicit Memory......Page 701
Infantile Amnesia......Page 702
Conclusions......Page 703
References......Page 704
The Development of Skilled Remembering in Children......Page 709
Estimates of Long-Term Retention......Page 711
Imitation-based paradigms......Page 712
Bridges to Verbally Based Remembering......Page 714
Memory for salient events......Page 716
The Role of Knowledge......Page 717
Prior knowledge......Page 718
Changes in knowledge......Page 719
Parental reminiscing styles......Page 720
Conversation during events......Page 721
Learning to Be Strategic......Page 723
Rehearsal and Organizational Strategies in the Elementary School Years......Page 725
Context Specificity in Strategy Development......Page 726
Prior knowledge......Page 728
Metamemory......Page 729
Schooling......Page 730
Exploring the Development of Memory......Page 731
References......Page 733
Developmental Disorders of Learning: What Do They Actually Mean?......Page 739
The Concept of Learning Disabilities......Page 740
History......Page 741
Epidemiology......Page 742
Presentation and Diagnoses......Page 744
Etiology......Page 746
Relevant Theoretical Models and Considerations......Page 747
Manifestation and Life Course......Page 748
Treatment, Remediation, Intervention, and Prevention......Page 749
References......Page 750
Autism: Classification and Description......Page 753
History and Background: Accounts of Autistic Learning......Page 754
Learning in the Autism Intervention Research......Page 756
Applied Behavior Analysis and Autistic Learning......Page 757
Autistic Learning in the Cognitive and Savant Literatures......Page 759
References......Page 762
Introduction......Page 767
Separate but Equal......Page 768
A Crucible for Theory Testing!......Page 769
The Psychometric Approach to Memory......Page 770
Higher-stratum memory factors......Page 771
A distinction between STM and WM......Page 772
A distinction between STM and WM?......Page 773
Individual-by-Treatment Interactions in Memory......Page 774
Individual-by-Treatment Interactions within WM Span Tasks......Page 775
Individual-by-Treatment Interactions in the Effects of WM on Other Tasks......Page 776
References......Page 777
Aging and Memory......Page 780
Empirical Findings......Page 781
Short-Term and Working Memory......Page 783
Long-Term Memory: Semantic Versus Episodic Memory......Page 784
Intentional versus incidental learning......Page 785
Episodic memory support by semantic memory......Page 786
Test type......Page 787
Recollection and familiarity......Page 788
False memory......Page 789
Prospective memory......Page 790
Attentional resource limitations......Page 791
Capacity (working memory) limitations......Page 793
Associative-binding deficit approach......Page 794
An Integrated View......Page 795
Positive Modulators of Older Adults’ Episodic Memory Performance......Page 797
Summary......Page 798
References......Page 799
Superior Memory of Mnemonists and Experts in Various Domains......Page 802
Brief Historical Background......Page 803
The Role of Meaningful Associations in Superior Memory Performance......Page 805
Acquisition of Exceptional Memory through Practice and Training......Page 807
Superior Memory of Experts and Their Superior Performance on Representative Tasks......Page 808
References......Page 809
Eyewitness Identification......Page 811
Breadth of Research on Eyewitness Memory......Page 812
Exposure Time......Page 814
Own-Race Bias......Page 815
Stress Experienced by the Eyewitness......Page 816
Weapon Focus......Page 817
Eyewitness Confidence......Page 818
The Application of Estimator Variables: Expert Testimony......Page 819
Blind Administration of Lineups......Page 820
Filler Selection......Page 821
Lineup Presentation......Page 822
Postidentification Feedback......Page 824
General Conclusions......Page 826
References......Page 827
The Importance of Prospective Memory in Everyday Life......Page 832
Nonlaboratory Paradigms......Page 834
Laboratory Paradigms......Page 835
Event-Based Prospective Memory......Page 836
Retrieval of Prospective Memories: Retrieval Without an Explicit Request to Remember......Page 837
Spontaneous Retrieval Theory......Page 838
Multiprocess Theory......Page 840
Storage of Prospective Memories: Do They Enjoy a Privileged Status in Memory?......Page 842
Associative Encoding......Page 843
Similarities and Differences Between Prospective and Retrospective Memory......Page 845
Development and Prospective Memory......Page 846
Prospective Memory in Children......Page 847
Prospective Memory in Older Adults......Page 848
Neuropsychology......Page 849
Functional Neuroimaging......Page 850
Electrophysiology......Page 851
References......Page 853
A Brief Biography of Autobiographical Memory Research......Page 858
The Representation of Autobiographical Knowledge in Long-Term Memory......Page 860
Episodic Memory......Page 864
Self-Defining Memories......Page 866
Self-Images......Page 867
The Life Span Distribution of Autobiographical Memories......Page 868
References......Page 871
Social Memory Processes......Page 875
The Effects of the Present on Recall......Page 876
A Consistency Bias in Recall......Page 877
Motivated Recall......Page 878
The Perception of Self-Improvement......Page 880
Mistaking Change in Self for Change in the World......Page 881
Subjective Time......Page 882
Collaborative Memory......Page 883
Controlling and Transmitting Memories......Page 885
References......Page 887
Collective Memory......Page 891
Collective Memory as Social Framing......Page 892
Collective Memory in the Social Construction of Groups......Page 893
Collective Memory as Semiotic Distribution......Page 897
References......Page 901
Editor-in-Chief......Page 2
Volume 4......Page 3
FOREWORD......Page 4
PREFACE......Page 5
Permission Acknowledgement......Page 7