Textbook of Nutrition in Health and Disease

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Authors
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
1: An Integrated View of Human Nutrition and Health
	1.1	 Concept of Nutrition
		1.1.1	 Essential Nutrients of the Diet
		1.1.2	 Component of Food Nutrients (Table 1.1)
		1.1.3	 Nutritional Requirements and RDA
			1.1.3.1	 Infants (0–1 Year)
			1.1.3.2	 Preschool Children (1–6 Years)
			1.1.3.3	 Schoolchildren (6–12 Years)
			1.1.3.4	 Adolescents (8–13 Years in Girls and 9–14 Years in Boys)
			1.1.3.5	 Adults (21–59 Years)
			1.1.3.6	 Elderly People (60 Years and Above)
			1.1.3.7	 Pregnant Women
			1.1.3.8	 Lactating Mother
	1.2	 Inborn Errors of Metabolism
		1.2.1	 Galactosemia (Edelstein and Sharlin 2009)
		1.2.2	 Phenylketonuria (Elia et al. 2013)
		1.2.3	 Fructose Intolerance (Fructosemia) (Edelstein and Sharlin 2009)
	1.3	 Concept of Energy Metabolism
		1.3.1	 Energy Derived from Food (Ganong 2003)
		1.3.2	 Metabolic Rate
		1.3.3	 Energy Balance
		1.3.4	 RDA of Energy Intake
		1.3.5	 Respiratory Quotient
			1.3.5.1	 RQ for Carbohydrate
			1.3.5.2	 RQ for Fat
			1.3.5.3	 RQ for Protein
		1.3.6	 Energy Sources of the Cells
		1.3.7	 Calorigenic Hormones
	1.4	 Concept of Health
		1.4.1	 Physical
		1.4.2	 Mental
		1.4.3	 Social
		1.4.4	 Genetics
		1.4.5	 Hereditary
		1.4.6	 Economic Status
		1.4.7	 Educational Status
		1.4.8	 Type of Occupation and Employment
		1.4.9	 Food Habits
		1.4.10	 Digital Environment
	1.5	 Control of Food Intake (Chakrabarty and Chakrabarty 1972)
		1.5.1	 Interaction of Hypothalamus with Appetite-Stimulating and Appetite-Inhibiting Hormones in Controlling Food Intake
	1.6	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
2: Macronutrients
	2.1	 Carbohydrate Metabolism and Nutrition
		2.1.1	 Classification, Structure, Properties, and Functions
			2.1.1.1	 Classification (Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5)
			2.1.1.2	 Structure (Champe and Harvey 1994)
				Isomers
				Epimers
				Enantiomers
			2.1.1.3	 Properties
			2.1.1.4	 Functions
		2.1.2	 Digestion and Absorption
			2.1.2.1	 Mouth
			2.1.2.2	 Stomach
			2.1.2.3	 Small Intestine
		2.1.3	 Lactose Intolerance
			2.1.3.1	 Symptoms
			2.1.3.2	 Diagnosis
			2.1.3.3	 Prevention
		2.1.4	 Glycolysis, Vitamins, and Citric Acid Cycle (Table 2.6)
			2.1.4.1	 Embden-Meyerhof Pathway
			2.1.4.2	 Pentose Phosphate Pathway/Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
			2.1.4.3	 Role of Citric Acid Cycle [Krebs Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA)] in Metabolism
			2.1.4.4	 Vitamins and Citric Acid Cycle
		2.1.5	 Dietary Sources, RDA, Deficiency, and Overconsumption
			2.1.5.1	 Dietary Sources (Table 2.7)
	2.2	 Lipid Metabolism and Nutrition
		2.2.1	 Classification, Structure, Properties, and Functions
			2.2.1.1	 Classification
			2.2.1.2	 Structure
				Structure of Fatty Acid and Glycerol (Fig. 2.8)
				Structure of Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids (Fig. 2.9)
			2.2.1.3	 Properties
			2.2.1.4	 Functions (Table 2.10) and Lipogenesis vs Lipolysis  (Table 2.11)
		2.2.2	 Digestion and Absorption
			2.2.2.1	 Stomach
			2.2.2.2	 Small Intestine
		2.2.3	 Steatorrhea
		2.2.4	 Hormone-Sensitive Lipase and Eicosanoids
			2.2.4.1	 Hormone-Sensitive Lipase (Ganong 2003)
			2.2.4.2	 Eicosanoids
		2.2.5	 Fatty Acid Synthesis and Oxidation (Murray et al. 1996)
			2.2.5.1	 Synthesis (Fig. 2.15)
			2.2.5.2	 Oxidation (Fig. 2.16)
		2.2.6	 Ketone Bodies (Fig. 2.17)
		2.2.7	 Dietary Sources, RDA, Deficiency, and Overconsumption
			2.2.7.1	 Dietary Sources (Fig. 2.19)
			2.2.7.2	 RDA (Fig. 2.20)
			2.2.7.3	 Deficiency
			2.2.7.4	 Overconsumption
		2.2.8	 Saponification, Iodine, and Acid Values (Hasan et al. 2018)
	2.3	 Protein Metabolism and Nutrition
		2.3.1	 Classification, Structure, Properties, and Functions
			2.3.1.1	 Classification
			2.3.1.2	 Structure
				Primary Structure (Fig. 2.21)
				Secondary Structure (Voet et al. 2016)
				Tertiary Structure (Fig. 2.22)
				Quaternary Structure (Fig. 2.23)
			2.3.1.3	 Properties
			2.3.1.4	 Functions
		2.3.2	 Digestion and Absorption
		2.3.3	 Essential Amino Acids, Nonessential Amino Acids, and Nitrogen Balance
		2.3.4	 Water-Soluble Vitamins in Gluconeogenesis and Ketogenesis (Fig. 2.25)
		2.3.5	 Ketogenic Amino Acids (Fig. 2.26)
		2.3.6	 Role of Vitamins in Oxidative Deamination and Transamination (Fig. 2.27)
		2.3.7	 Amino Acid Metabolism, Synthesis of Nonessential Amino Acids and Protein Synthesis
			2.3.7.1	 Amino Acid Metabolism (Fig. 2.28)
			2.3.7.2	 Synthesis of Nonessential Amino Acids
			2.3.7.3	 Protein Synthesis (Fig. 2.29)
			2.3.7.4	 Transcription [(DNA Is Converted to Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)]
			2.3.7.5	 Initiation
			2.3.7.6	 Elongation
			2.3.7.7	 Termination
			2.3.7.8	 Post-translation Modification
			2.3.7.9	 Polysome
		2.3.8	 Protein Degradation
		2.3.9	 Dietary Sources, Biologic Values, RDA, Deficiency, and Overconsumption
			2.3.9.1	 Dietary Sources (Table 2.12)
			2.3.9.2	 Biologic Values
			2.3.9.3	 RDA (Fig. 2.32) (Table 2.13)
			2.3.9.4	 Deficiency
			2.3.9.5	 Overconsumption
	2.4	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
3: Enzymes
	3.1	 Classification
	3.2	 Coenzymes and Cofactors
		3.2.1	 Classification of Coenzymes (Table 3.1)
	3.3	 Properties
	3.4	 Michaelis–Menten Equation or Model
	3.5	 Clinically Important Enzymes (Table 3.2)
	3.6	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
4: Micronutrients
	4.1	 Fat-Soluble Vitamins (Longo et al. 2011)
		4.1.1	 Vitamin A
			4.1.1.1	 Structure (Fig. 4.1)
			4.1.1.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.1.1.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.1.1.4	 RDA (μg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.1.1.5	 Deficiencies
			4.1.1.6	 Prevention
			4.1.1.7	 Hypervitaminosis
		4.1.2	 Vitamin D
			4.1.2.1	 Structure
			4.1.2.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.1.2.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.1.2.4	 RDA (μg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.1.2.5	 Deficiencies
			4.1.2.6	 Hypervitaminosis
		4.1.3	 Vitamin E (Tocopherols)
			4.1.3.1	 Structure
			4.1.3.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.1.3.3	 Synergistic Action of Vitamin E and Selenium
			4.1.3.4	 Dietary Sources
			4.1.3.5	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.1.3.6	 Deficiencies
		4.1.4	 Vitamin K
			4.1.4.1	 Structure
			4.1.4.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.1.4.3	 Vitamin K Antagonists
			4.1.4.4	 Dietary Sources
			4.1.4.5	 RDA (μg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.1.4.6	 Deficiencies
	4.2	 Water-Soluble Vitamins (Gibney et al. 2009)
		4.2.1	 Vitamin B1 (Thaimin)
			4.2.1.1	 Structure
			4.2.1.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.2.1.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.2.1.4	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.2.1.5	 Deficiencies
				Infantile Beriberi
			4.2.1.6	 Alcoholism and Thaimin Deficiency
		4.2.2	 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
			4.2.2.1	 Structure
			4.2.2.2	 Properties
			4.2.2.3	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.2.2.4	 Dietary Sources
			4.2.2.5	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.2.2.6	 Deficiencies
		4.2.3	 Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
			4.2.3.1	 Structure (Fig. 4.13)
			4.2.3.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.2.3.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.2.3.4	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.2.3.5	 Deficiencies
			4.2.3.6	 Hypervitaminosis
			4.2.3.7	 Clinical Importance
		4.2.4	 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
			4.2.4.1	 Structure
			4.2.4.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.2.4.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.2.4.4	 Deficiencies
		4.2.5	 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
			4.2.5.1	 Structure (Fig. 4.15)
			4.2.5.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.2.5.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.2.5.4	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.2.5.5	 Deficiencies
			4.2.5.6	 Toxicity
		4.2.6	 Biotin
			4.2.6.1	 Structure (Fig. 4.16)
			4.2.6.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.2.6.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.2.6.4	 Deficiencies
		4.2.7	 Vitamin B12
			4.2.7.1	 Structure
			4.2.7.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.2.7.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.2.7.4	 RDA (μg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.2.7.5	 Absorption
			4.2.7.6	 Deficiencies
		4.2.8	 Folic Acid/Folate (Pteroylglutamic Acid)
			4.2.8.1	 Structure
			4.2.8.2	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.2.8.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.2.8.4	 RDA (μg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.2.8.5	 Interaction Between Folic Acid and Vitamin B12
			4.2.8.6	 Clinical Implication
		4.2.9	 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
			4.2.9.1	 Structure (Fig. 4.25)
			4.2.9.2	 Properties
			4.2.9.3	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.2.9.4	 Dietary Sources
			4.2.9.5	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.2.9.6	 Deficiencies
	4.3	 Macrominerals
		4.3.1	 Calcium
			4.3.1.1	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.3.1.2	 Regulation (Table 4.2)
			4.3.1.3	 Dietary Sources
			4.3.1.4	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.3.1.5	 Deficiencies
			4.3.1.6	 Calcium Toxicity
		4.3.2	 Phosphorus
			4.3.2.1	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.3.2.2	 Dietary Sources
			4.3.2.3	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.3.2.4	 Deficiencies
		4.3.3	 Sodium, Potassium, and Chloride
			4.3.3.1	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.3.3.2	 Dietary Sources
			4.3.3.3	 Deficiencies
			4.3.3.4	 Toxicity
		4.3.4	 Magnesium
			4.3.4.1	 Dietary Sources
			4.3.4.2	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.3.4.3	 Deficiencies
			4.3.4.4	 Toxicity
	4.4	 Microminerals
		4.4.1	 Iron
			4.4.1.1	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.4.1.2	 Dietary Sources
			4.4.1.3	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.4.1.4	 Iron Deficiency Anemia
				Causes
				Symptoms
				Prevention
				Diagnostic Criteria of Iron Deficiency Anemia
			4.4.1.5	 Toxicity Due to Excess Iron Intake
		4.4.2	 Copper
			4.4.2.1	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.4.2.2	 Dietary Sources
			4.4.2.3	 RDA (μg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.4.2.4	 Deficiencies
			4.4.2.5	 Copper Toxicity
		4.4.3	 Iodine
			4.4.3.1	 RDA (μg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.4.3.2	 Goiter
			4.4.3.3	 Iodine Toxicity
			4.4.3.4	 Prevention
		4.4.4	 Zinc
			4.4.4.1	 Physio-biochemical Role
			4.4.4.2	 Dietary Sources
			4.4.4.3	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.4.4.4	 Deficiencies
			4.4.4.5	 Toxicity
		4.4.5	 Fluoride
		4.4.6	 Manganese
			4.4.6.1	 Dietary Sources
			4.4.6.2	 RDA (mg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.4.6.3	 Deficiency
			4.4.6.4	 Toxicity
		4.4.7	 Selenium
			4.4.7.1	 Dietary Sources
			4.4.7.2	 RDA (μg/day) at Different Age Groups and During Pregnancy and Lactation
			4.4.7.3	 Deficiency
			4.4.7.4	 Toxicity (Selenosis)
		4.4.8	 Molybdenum
		4.4.9	 Cobalt
		4.4.10	 Sulfur
		4.4.11	 Chromium
	4.5	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
5: Dietary Fibers
	5.1	 Properties
	5.2	 Biochemical Features
	5.3	 Food Sources
	5.4	 RDA
	5.5	 Beneficial Effects
	5.6	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
6: Food Hypersensitivity
	6.1	 Activation of B Cells
	6.2	 Activation of T Cells
	6.3	 Non-IgE-Mediated Food Hypersensitivity
	6.4	 Nonallergic Food Hypersensitivity
	6.5	 Vitamin D Hypothesis
	6.6	 Diagnosis
	6.7	 Management
	6.8	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
7: Food Groups, Balanced Diet, and Food Composition
	7.1	 Food Groups
	7.2	 Balanced Diet (Tables 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5)
		7.2.1	 Beneficial Effects of Vegetarian Diet
	7.3	 Food Pyramid
	7.4	 Food Composition
	7.5	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
8: Nutritional Deficiencies and Disorders
	8.1	 Body Mass Index and Autonomic Function
	8.2	 Protein Energy Malnutrition
		8.2.1	 Kwashiorkor
		8.2.2	 Marasmus
		8.2.3	 Prevention of PEM
	8.3	 Starvation
	8.4	 Malabsorption Syndrome
	8.5	 Overnutrition and Obesity
		8.5.1	 Complications
		8.5.2	 Prevention
		8.5.3	 Anthropometric Measurements
	8.6	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
9: Eating Disorders
	9.1	 Anorexia Nervosa
	9.2	 Bulimia Nervosa
	9.3	 Binge Eating Disorder
	9.4	 Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified
	9.5	 Avoidant-Restrictive Food Intake Disorder
	9.6	 Night Eating Syndrome
	9.7	 Sleep-Related Eating Disorder
	9.8	 Orthorexia Nervosa (McComb and Mills 2019; Saljoughian 2017)
	9.9	 Miscellaneous Eating Disorders
	9.10	 Summary
	References
		Website
		Further Reading
10: Nutritional Therapies, Exercise, and Diet for Mental Disorders
	10.1	 Nutritional Therapies
		10.1.1	 Role of Vitamins
	10.2	 Anxiety Disorder and Nutrition
	10.3	 Major Depressive Disorder and Nutrition
	10.4	 Bipolar Disorder and Nutrition
	10.5	 Schizophrenia and Nutrition
	10.6	 Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Nutrition
	10.7	 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Nutrition
	10.8	 Oxytocin and Mental Disorders
	10.9	 Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Mental Disorders
	10.10	 Oxidative Damage and Mental Disorders
	10.11	 Depression in Elderly People
	10.12	 Exercise and Mental Functions
	10.13	 Diet and Mental Disorders (Fig. 10.1)
		10.13.1	 Role of Carbohydrates
		10.13.2	 Role of Proteins
		10.13.3	 Role of Lipids
	10.14	 Effect of Bright Light on Mental Disorders
	10.15	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
11: Lifestyle-Related Diseases and Disorders
	11.1	 Diabetes Mellitus and Nutrition
		11.1.1	 Diabetes Mellitus
		11.1.2	 Characteristic Features of Uncontrolled Diabetes Mellitus
		11.1.3	 Complications
		11.1.4	 Types of Diabetes Mellitus (Fig. 11.3; Table 11.1) (ADA 2018)
		11.1.5	 Genetic Factors of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
			11.1.5.1	 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
			11.1.5.2	 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
		11.1.6	 Diagnosis
		11.1.7	 GI Range of Certain Food Items
			11.1.7.1	 Low GI 49
			11.1.7.2	 Medium GI 50–69
			11.1.7.3	 High GI 70 and Above
		11.1.8	 Prevention
		11.1.9	 Ketogenic Diets
	11.2	 Hypertension and Nutrition
		11.2.1	 Essential Hypertension
		11.2.2	 Secondary Hypertension
		11.2.3	 Resistant Hypertension
		11.2.4	 Symptoms
		11.2.5	 Complications
		11.2.6	 Prevention
	11.3	 Atherosclerosis and Nutrition
		11.3.1	 Prevention of Atherosclerosis
	11.4	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
12: Addiction-Related Health Problems
	12.1	 Alcoholism
		12.1.1	 Withdrawal Symptoms
		12.1.2	 Prevention
	12.2	 Tobacco Smoking
	12.3	 Drug Abuse/Drug Dependence
		12.3.1	 Opiates
		12.3.2	 Cocaine (Longo et al. 2011)
		12.3.3	 Amphetamine
		12.3.4	 Hallucinogenic Drugs (Ganong 2003)
		12.3.5	 Cannabis Compounds (Zehra et al. 2018)
		12.3.6	 Phencyclidine
		12.3.7	 Barbiturates and Sedatives
	12.4	 Summary
	References
		Website
		Further Reading
13: Nutritional Management of Diseases
	13.1	 Cancer and Nutrition
		13.1.1	 Prevention
		13.1.2	 Nutritional Interventions
	13.2	 Cardiovascular Diseases and Nutrition
		13.2.1	 Nutritional Therapies
	13.3	 Liver Diseases and Nutrition
		13.3.1	 Nutritional Interventions
	13.4	 Renal Diseases and Nutrition
		13.4.1	 Nutritional Interventions (Anderson et al. 2016; Kalantar-Zadeh and Fouque 2017)
	13.5	 Gastrointestinal Diseases and Nutrition
		13.5.1	 Gastric Carcinoma
		13.5.2	 Colorectal Carcinoma
		13.5.3	 Celiac Disease
		13.5.4	 Crohn’s Disease
		13.5.5	 Cystic Fibrosis
		13.5.6	 Diverticular Disease
		13.5.7	 Nutritional Therapies
	13.6	 AIDS and Nutrition
		13.6.1	 Stages of HIV Infection (Gibney et al. 2009)
		13.6.2	 Laboratory Diagnosis
		13.6.3	 Management (Fauci et al. 2009)
		13.6.4	 Role of Nutrition in HIV Infection
		13.6.5	 Prevention
	13.7	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
14: Miscellaneous Health Problems
	14.1	 Normal Body Temperature
	14.2	 Fever
	14.3	 Causes of Fever (Colledge et al. 2010; Longo et al. 2011)
		14.3.1	 Viruses
		14.3.2	 Bacterial Infections
		14.3.3	 Protozoal Infections
		14.3.4	 Nematode Infections
		14.3.5	 Endocrine Disorders
	14.4	 Fever of Unknown Origin
	14.5	 Accompaniments of Fever
		14.5.1	 Diet Therapy and Diet Plan for Fever
			14.5.1.1	 Diet Therapy for Fever
			14.5.1.2	 Diet Plan
	14.6	 Health Problems Due to Climatic Factors (Colledge et al. 2010; Longo et al. 2011)
	14.7	 Constipation and Preventive Measures (Forootan et al. 2018)
		14.7.1	 Symptoms
		14.7.2	 Causes
		14.7.3	 Preventive Measures
	14.8	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
15: An Integrated View of Cognition, Oxidative Stress, Brain Functions, and Nutritional Interventions in Aging
	15.1	 Cognitive Functions
	15.2	 Age-Related Decline of Physiological Functions
	15.3	 Age-Related Changes of Brain Functions
	15.4	 Neurotransmitter Deficits of the Brain
	15.5	 Aging and Oxidative Stress (Kregel and Zhang 2007)
	15.6	 Aging and Telomeres
	15.7	 Nutritional Interventions and Additional Measures for Successful Aging
	15.8	 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
16: Poor Maintenance of Food Hygiene and Food Safety
	16.1	 Food Spoilage
	16.2	 Food Adulteration
	16.3	 Food-Borne and Water-Borne Diseases
		16.3.1	 Vulnerable Individuals to Food-Borne and Water-Borne Diseases
		16.3.2	 Prevention Strategies for Food-Borne and Water-Borne Diseases
	16.4	 Nausea and Vomiting
	16.5	 Diarrhea
		16.5.1	 Management and Nutritional Therapy of Diarrheal Diseases (Elia et al. 2013)
	16.6	 Control of Osmolality and Water Balance of the Body
	16.7	 Regulation of Acid-Base Balance of the Body
	16.8	 Summary
	References
		Websites
		Further Reading
17: Potable Water
	17.1	 Sources of Untreated Water
	17.2	 Purification of Drinking Water (Treacy 2019)
	17.3	 Summary
	References
		Websites
		Further Reading
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
	Website
Glossary
Index