Sustainable Agriculture: Technical Progressions and Transitions

Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Understanding Sustainable Agriculture
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Global Impact of Green Revolution on the Environment
	1.3 Sustainable Agriculture
		1.3.1 Advantages
		1.3.2 Principles of Sustainable Agriculture
		1.3.3 Goals of Sustainable Agriculture
	1.4 Farming Systems and Agriculture Sustainability
		1.4.1 Principles of Farming System
		1.4.2 Aims of Farming System
		1.4.3 Organic Farming
		1.4.4 Principles of Organic Farming
		1.4.5 Relevance of Organic Farming
		1.4.6 Precision Agriculture
		1.4.7 Climate-Resilient Crop Varieties
		1.4.8 Micro-Irrigation
		1.4.9 Tillage Management for the Effectiveness of Fertilisers and Pesticides
	1.5 Soil and Its Sustainability
		1.5.1 Soil and Plant Environment as a Sustaining Environment for Microbial Life
		1.5.2 Mechanisms and Application of Plant Growth-Promoting Microbes in Agricultural Soils
		1.5.3 Microbial Disease-Suppressive Agents
			1.5.3.1 Siderophore
			1.5.3.2 Phytoalexin
		1.5.4 Impact of Microbes in Enhancing Soil Fertility, Health and Plant Growth Attributes
	1.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 2: Biofertilizers: The Role in Sustainable Agriculture
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 Rhizobium
		2.1.2 Azospirillum
		2.1.3 Azotobacter
		2.1.4 Phosphorus-Solubilizing and Phosphorus-Mobilizing Microbes
	2.2 Biofertilizers: Why their Need Is Inevitable?
	2.3 How Biofertilizers Work
		2.3.1 Direct Way
		2.3.2 Indirect Way
	2.4 Methods of Application of Biofertilizers to Crops
		2.4.1 Seed Treatment
		2.4.2 Seedling Root Dip
		2.4.3 Soil Treatment
	2.5 The Role of Biofertilizers in the Alleviation of Environmental Stresses
	2.6 Some Factors Limiting the Use of Biofertilizers
	2.7 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 3: Organic Farming for Sustainable Soil Use, Management, Food Production and Climate Change Mitigation
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Need for Organic Farming
	3.3 Key Aspects of Organic Farming
	3.4 Organic Fertilisers
	3.5 Principles of Organic Farming
		3.5.1 Principle of Health
		3.5.2 Principle of Fairness
		3.5.3 Principle of Ecological Balance
		3.5.4 Principle of Care
	3.6 Unsustainability of Conventional Farming
	3.7 Essentials of Organic Farming
		3.7.1 Farmyard and Other Organic Manures
		3.7.2 Vermicompost
		3.7.3 Green Manuring
		3.7.4 Organic Matter Application and Restoration
		3.7.5 Crop Rotation
			3.7.5.1 Principles for Crop Rotation
			3.7.5.2 Steps for Crop Rotation and Planning
		3.7.6 Mulching
		3.7.7 Integrated Nutrient Management
		3.7.8 Zero Tillage
	3.8 Benefits of Organic Farming
		3.8.1 Crop Productivity
		3.8.2 Soil Fertility and Biological Parameters
		3.8.3 Sustainable Soil Management
		3.8.4 Water Management
		3.8.5 Pest and Disease Management
		3.8.6 Cover Crops and Crop Rotation
	3.9 The Organic Food System
		3.9.1 Classification
		3.9.2 Production
		3.9.3 Distribution
	3.10 Effect of Organic Farming on Climate Change
		3.10.1 Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emission
		3.10.2 Reducing Energy Use
		3.10.3 Helping Farmers to Adapt to Climate Change
		3.10.4 Storing Carbon in the Soil
		3.10.5 Advocating for Policy Change
	3.11 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 4: The Role of Plant Extracts in Sustainable Agriculture
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Commonly Used Botanicals
	4.3 Significance of Botanicals
	4.4 Plant Extracts Used as Biopesticides (Based on Different Categories)
	4.5 Positives of Biopesticides
	4.6 Plant Extracts Used as Bioherbicides (Categorized Based on Different Modes of Action)
	4.7 Plant Extracts Used as Fungicides and Antimicrobial (Based on Modes of Action)
	4.8 Secondary Metabolites and their Mechanism of Action
	4.9 Plant Extracts with Anti-Parasitic Properties
	4.10 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 5: Botanical Pesticides for an Eco-Friendly and Sustainable Agriculture: New Challenges and Prospects
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Sustainable Agriculture: A Promise to the Future
	5.3 The Growing Pest Emergence, Problem and Utilization of Chemical Pesticides
	5.4 Erroneous Effects of Chemical Pesticides in Agriculture: Hazards to Human Health, Insect Biodiversity and Aquatic Ecosystem
	5.5 Botanical Pesticides: A Natural Alternative for Chemical Pesticides
		5.5.1 Source of Botanical Pesticides
		5.5.2 Benefits of Botanical Pesticides over Synthetic Pesticides
		5.5.3 Biodegradability of Botanical Pesticides
		5.5.4 Botanical Pesticides for Integrated Pest Management
	5.6 Prospects of Botanical Pesticides: Discussion and Conclusion
	References
Chapter 6: The Role of Plant-Mediated Biosynthesised Nanoparticles in Agriculture
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Types of Different Nanoparticles (NPs)
		6.2.1 Inorganic-Based Nanomaterials
		6.2.2 Organic-Based Nanomaterials
		6.2.3 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
		6.2.4 Composite-Based Nanomaterials
	6.3 Techniques for the Readiness of Nanoparticles
		6.3.1 Top-Down Approach
		6.3.2 Bottom-Up Approach
	6.4 Methods of Nanoparticle Production
		6.4.1 Physical Methods
			6.4.1.1 Mechanical Attrition
			6.4.1.2 Condensation of Inert Gas
			6.4.1.3 Physical Vapour Deposition
		6.4.2 Chemical Methods
		6.4.3 Gas-Phase Synthesis
		6.4.4 Liquid-Phase Synthesis
	6.5 Limitations of Chemical and Physical Methods
	6.6 Characterisation of Nanomaterials
		6.6.1 UV-vis Spectroscopy
		6.6.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
		6.6.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
		6.6.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
		6.6.5 Fourier Transmission Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
		6.6.6 Atomic Force Microscopy
	6.7 Biological Synthesis of Nanomaterials
		6.7.1 Bacteria-Mediated Biosynthesis of Nanomaterials
		6.7.2 Fungal-Mediated Nanomaterials
		6.7.3 Plant-Based Nanomaterials
	6.8 The Role of Nanoparticles in Agriculture
		6.8.1 Crop Productivity
		6.8.2 Plant Protection
	6.9 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7: The Role of Green Synthesised Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles in Agriculture
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs)
	7.3 Nanoparticles Synthesis
	7.4 Methods of Nonmaterial Synthesis
		7.4.1 Physical Synthesis
		7.4.2 Chemical Synthesis
		7.4.3 Biological Synthesis
	7.5 Limitations of Conventional Methods for ZnO Nanoparticle Synthesis
	7.6 Characterisation of ZnO Nanoparticles
		7.6.1 UV-Visible Spectroscopy
		7.6.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy
		7.6.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy
		7.6.4 Dynamic Light Scattering
		7.6.5 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy
		7.6.6 X-Ray Diffraction
		7.6.7 Fourier Transforms Infrared Spectroscopy
		7.6.8 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
	7.7 The Role of Green Synthesised Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) in Agriculture
	7.8 The Role of ZnO-NPs under Abiotic Stress
	References
Chapter 8: Biochar: A Game Changer for Sustainable Agriculture
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Formulation, Properties and Biochemistry of Biochar
		8.2.1 Feedstock for the Production of Biochar
		8.2.2 Pyrolysis Methods for Biochar Production
		8.2.3 Biochar Properties
	8.3 The Role of Biochar in Sustainable Agriculture
		8.3.1 Biochar and Nutrients Dynamics
			8.3.1.1 Direct and Indirect Nutrient Values of Biochar
			8.3.1.2 Biochar as a Soil Amendment
		8.3.2 Biochar’s Impact on Soil Microbiota and Plant Growth
		8.3.3 The Effect of Biochar on Soil Enzymes
		8.3.4 The Effects of Biochar on Microorganism Extracted Soil Enzymes
	8.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook
	References
Chapter 9: Production of Biochar Using Top-Lit Updraft and Its Application in Horticulture
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Methods of Biochar Production
		9.2.1 Properties and Characteristics of Biochar
			9.2.1.1 Physical Characters
			9.2.1.2 Chemical Characters
	9.3 Biochar as a Soil Amendment
		9.3.1 Biochar Impact on Soil Physicochemical Properties
		9.3.2 Impact of Biochar on Soil Microorganisms
		9.3.3 Application of Biochar in Horticulture
	9.4 Sustainable Agriculture and Biochar
	9.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 10: The Use of Genomics and Precise Breeding to Genetically Improve the Traits of Agriculturally Important Organisms
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Genomic and Precise Breeding Techniques
		10.2.1 454 Pyrosequencing
		10.2.2 Ion Torrent
		10.2.3 Illumina Sequencing
	10.3 Applications of Genomics
	10.4 Precision Breeding Techniques
		10.4.1 Zinc Finger Nucleases
		10.4.2 TALENs
			10.4.2.1 Application of TALENs in Crop Plants
		10.4.3 CRISPR/Cas
	10.5 Regulation of Genome-Edited Crops
	10.6 Technological Risks
	10.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 11: Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): Strategies to Improve Heavy Metal Stress Under Sustainable Agriculture
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 An Introduction to PGPR
	11.3 Mechanisms of PGPR’s Action
		11.3.1 Direct Mechanism
			11.3.1.1 Nitrogen Fixation
			11.3.1.2 Phosphate Solubilisation
			11.3.1.3 Siderophore Production
			11.3.1.4 Production of Phytohormone
				Indole Acetic Acid (IAA)
				Gibberellins and Cytokinins
		11.3.2 Indirect Mechanisms
			11.3.2.1 Antibiotic Production
			11.3.2.2 Lytic Enzyme Production
			11.3.2.3 Development of Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR)
	11.4 Impact of PGPR on Plants
		11.4.1 As Biofertilisers
		11.4.2 As Biocontrol Agent
		11.4.3 As Environmental Stress Controller
	11.5 Reports on the Effect of PGPRs in the Role of Biofertilisers
	11.6 Heavy Metal Stress in the Environment
		11.6.1 Effects of PGPRs on Plants in Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soil
	11.7 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12: Exploring the Phytoremediation Potential of Macrophytes for Treating Sewage Effluent Through Constructed Wetland Technology (CWT) for Sustainable Agriculture
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Composition of Sewage Water
	12.3 Characteristics of Sewage Effluent
	12.4 Types of Aquatic Plants
		12.4.1 Free-Floating Hydrophytes
		12.4.2 Underwater (Submerged) Hydrophytes
		12.4.3 Emergent Hydrophytes
	12.5 Constructed Wetlands
		12.5.1 Surface Flow Constructed Wetlands
		12.5.2 Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands
			12.5.2.1 Horizontal Subsurface Flow System
			12.5.2.2 Vertical Subsurface Flow System
			12.5.2.3 Hybrid System
	12.6 The Role of Aquatic Plants in Constructed Wetlands
	12.7 Rhizofiltration
	12.8 Plant-Microbe Interactions
	12.9 Root Exudates
		12.9.1 Role of Root Exudates in CWs
	12.10 The Role of Enzymes in CWs
	12.11 CWs for Municipal and Sewage Wastewater Treatment
	12.12 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 13: Satellite-Based Soil Erosion Mapping
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Assessing Land Degradation
		13.2.1 Land Degradation Mapping and Modelling
		13.2.2 Assessing the spatio-temporal distribution of features associated with land degradation
		13.2.3 Collecting input data for process simulation models that create maps of ground cover, plant cover and bare soil.
		13.2.4 Spatio-Temporal Distribution Assessment
		13.2.5 Detection and Quantification of Indicators
		13.2.6 Modelling Input Data
	13.3 Soil Erosion Modelling Techniques
		13.3.1 Estimation of Soil Loss
		13.3.2 Erosivity and Erodibility
		13.3.3 Erosivity of Rainfall
	13.4 Factors Affecting the Erosivity of Rainfall
		13.4.1 Intensity of Rainfall
		13.4.2 Distribution of Drop Sizes
		13.4.3 Terminal Velocity
		13.4.4 Wind Speed
		13.4.5 Slope Direction
	13.5 Erosivity Estimation Using Rainfall Data
		13.5.1 EI30 Index Method
		13.5.2 KE > 25 Index Method
	13.6 Procedure for Calculation
		13.6.1 Erodibility of the Soil
		13.6.2 Determination of Erodibility
			13.6.2.1 In Situ Erosion Plots
			13.6.2.2 Measuring K Under a Simulated Rainstorm
			13.6.2.3 Predicting K
	13.7 Correlation of Soil Erosion and Rainfall Energy
	13.8 The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
	13.9 Parameters of Universal Soil Loss Equation
		13.9.1 The Factor of Rainfall (R)
		13.9.2 Factor of Soil Erodibility (K)
		13.9.3 The Factor of Topography (LS)
		13.9.4 The Factor of Crop Management (C)
		13.9.5 The Factor of Support Practices (P)
	13.10 USLE Parameter Estimation
		13.10.1 Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)
		13.10.2 Soil Erodibility Factor (K)
		13.10.3 Topographic Factor (LS)
		13.10.4 Crop Management Factor (C)
		13.10.5 Support Practice Factor (P)
	13.11 Applications of Universal Soil Loss Equation
	13.12 Limitations of Universal Soil Loss Equation
	13.13 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)
	13.14 Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE)
	13.15 Spatial Erosion Assessment
	13.16 Mapping Erosion From Space
	13.17 Satellites and Sensors Applied in Erosion Research
	13.18 Detection of Erosion
	13.19 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Simulation of Soil Erosion
	13.20 Satellite Remote Sensing
	13.21 Conclusions
	References
Index