Nutraceutical Fatty Acids from Oleaginous Microalgae: A Human Health Perspective

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Essential Fatty Acids
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Biosynthesis of PUFAs
	1.3 Sources of Essential Fatty Acids and Daily Intake Requirement
	1.4 Biological Role of Essential Fatty Acids
		1.4.1 Effect on Cell Membrane Structure
		1.4.2 Impact on Vision
		1.4.3 Brain Function
		1.4.4 Biosynthesis of Lipid Mediators
		1.4.5 Effect of Omega Fatty Acids on the Regulation of Gene Expression
	1.5 Effect of Essential Fatty Acid on Human Health (Disease Prevention and Treatment)
		1.5.1 Neonatal Development
		1.5.2 Gestation and Pregnancy
		1.5.3 Cardiovascular Disease
		1.5.4 Cancer Inhibition
		1.5.5 Rheumatoid Arthritis
		1.5.6 Effect on Suicide Risk in Mood Disorders
	1.6 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 2 Nutraceutical Fatty Acid Production in Marine Microalgae and Cyanobacteria
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Fatty Acid Synthesis
	2.3 Glycerolipid Synthesis and Lipid Accumulation
	2.4 Current LC-PUFA Sources and the Potential Benefits of Using Marine Microalgae
	2.5 Nutraceutical Fatty Acids in Marine Microalgae and Species of Interest
		2.5.1 α-Linolenic Acid (18:3 n-3, Δ9,12,15)
		2.5.2 Stearidonic Acid (18:4 n-3, Δ6,9,12,15)
		2.5.3 Eicosanoid Acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3, Δ5,8,11,14,17) and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3, Δ4,7,10,13,16,19
		2.5.4 Docosapentaenoic Acid (22:5 n-3, Δ7,10,13,16,19)
		2.5.5 γ-Linolenic Acid (18:3 n-6, Δ6,9,12)
		2.5.6 Arachidonic Acid (20:4 n-6, Δ5,8,11,14)
	2.6 Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Cultivation
	2.7 Cultivation from Laboratory to Industrial Scale
	2.8 Optimizing Growth Condition to Promote Lipid Accumulation and Desired FA Profiles
		2.8.1 Temperature Effect
		2.8.2 Irradiance
		2.8.3 Growth Rate
		2.8.4 Nitrogen and Phosphorous
		2.8.5 CO
		2.8.6 Salinity
	2.9 Genetic Engineering to Promote Lipid Accumulation and Tailoring of Fatty Acid Profiles
	2.10 Conclusions
	2.11 Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 3 Production of PUFAs as Dietary and Health Supplements from Oleaginous Microalgae Utilizing Inexpensive Renewable Substrates
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 PUFAs as Dietary and Health Supplements
	3.3 Microalgae as Source of PUFAs
	3.4 Systems for Microalgal Cultivation
	3.5 Use of Alternative Substrates for Microalgal Growth
	3.6 Factors that Affect the Heterotrophic and/or Mixotrophic Cultures
	3.7 Conclusions
	3.8 Future Perspectives
	3.9 Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 4 Lipid and Poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acid Production by Oleaginous Microorganisms Cultivated on Hydrophobic Substrates
	4.1 Lipid Production (Single Cell Oil)
	4.2 Lipid Biodegradation and Synthesis
	4.3 Hydrophobic Substrates
		4.3.1 Waste Fats, Oils and Grease (FOG)
		4.3.2 Olive-Mill Wastewater (OMW)
	4.4 Oleaginous Microorganisms
	4.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 5 Overview of Microbial Production of Omega-3-Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Microbial Sources of .-3 PUFA
	5.3 .-3 PUFA Biosynthesis in Microbial Cells
		5.3.1 Aerobic Desaturase and Elongase Pathway
		5.3.2 Anaerobic Polyketide Synthase (PKS) Pathway
	5.4 Factors Affecting .-3 PUFA Production
		5.4.1 Temperature
		5.4.2 pH
		5.4.3 Aeration
		5.4.4 Media Composition
		5.4.5 Incubation Time
	5.5 Stabilization of .-3 PUFA
	5.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 6 Autotrophic Cultivation of Microalgae for the Production of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Importance of PUFAs
	6.3 Biosynthesis of PUFA in Autotrophic Algae
	6.4 Harvesting of Algae and Extraction of Fatty Acids
	6.5 Metabolic Engineering Towards Increasing Production of PUFA’s by Algae
	6.6 Conclusion
	6.7 Acknowledgement
	References
Chapter 7 Production of Omega-3 and Omega-6 PUFA from Food Crops and Fishes
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 PUFA as a Dietary Supplement
		7.2.1 Omega-3 (n-3) Fatty Acids
		7.2.2 Omega-6 (n-6) Fatty Acids
		7.2.3 Health Aspects and Physiological Functions of PUFA
	7.3 Biosynthesis and Metabolism of PUFA
	7.4 Potential Commodities for PUFA Production
		7.4.1 Food Crops
			7.4.1.1 Soybean Seeds
			7.4.1.2 Rapeseed
			7.4.1.3 Safflower
			7.4.1.4 Sesame and Linseed
			7.4.1.5 Sunflower
		7.4.2 Transgenic Plants
		7.4.3 Fishes
			7.4.3.1 Fish Bioecology and Lipid Content
	7.5 Alternate Sources of PUFA
	7.6 Future Avenues
	7.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8 The Role of Metabolic Engineering for Enhancing PUFA Production in Microalgae
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 LC-PUFA Biosynthesis in Microalgae
		8.2.1 Conventional Aerobic Pathway
		8.2.2 Anaerobic Pathway
	8.3 Identification and Characterization of Enzymes Involved in PUFA Synthesis
	8.4 Metabolic Engineering for Enhancing the LC-PUFA Production in Microalgae
	8.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
Chapter 9 Health Perspective of Nutraceutical Fatty Acids; (Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids)
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Biochemistry of Fatty Acids
		9.1.2 Overview of Fatty Acid Synthesis
		9.1.3 Strategies for PUFA Accumulation in Microalgae
	9.2 Health Benefits of PUFA
		9.2.1 Omega-6 Fatty Acids
			9.2.1.1 Linoleic Acid (LA)
			9.2.1.2 .-Linolenic Acid (GLA)
			9.2.1.3 Arachidonic Acid (ARA)
		9.2.2 Omega-3 Fatty Acids
			9.2.2.1 Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA)
			9.2.2.2 Stearidonic Acid (SDA)
			9.2.2.3 Docosahexanoic Acid (DHA)
			9.2.2.4 Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)
	9.3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10 Extraction and Purification of PUFA from Microbial Biomass
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Biochemical Composition of Microalgae
		10.2.1 Carbohydrates
		10.2.2 Proteins
		10.2.3 Lipids
	10.3 Microalgae as a Source of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
	10.4 Composition of PUFAs in Microbial Biomass
	10.5 Methods of Lipid Extraction from Microbial Biomass
		10.5.1 Microalgae Cell Disruption Methods
			10.5.1.1 Mechanical Cell Disruption Methods
			10.5.1.2 Non-Mechanical Cell Disruption Methods
		10.5.2 Lipid Extraction Methods
			10.5.2.1 Mechanical Extraction Method
			10.5.2.2 Solvent Extraction Methods
			10.5.2.3 Green Solvents Extraction Methods
			10.5.2.4 Supercritical Extraction Method
	10.6 Purification and Enrichment of PUFAs
		10.6.1 Low-Temperature Crystallization Enrichment
		10.6.2 Urea Complexation
		10.6.3 Distillation Method
		10.6.4 Enzymatic Purification
		10.6.5 Chromatographic Separation
		10.6.6 Supercritical Fluid Fractionation (SFF)
	10.7 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 11 Market Perspective of EPA and DHA Production from Microalgae
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Categories of Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Their Health Benefits
	11.3 Brain Development
	11.4 Cardiovascular Diseases
	11.5 Present Sources of Omega-3 PUFAs
	11.6 Why Microalgae?
	11.7 Factors Affecting Growth and Fatty Acid Composition of Microalgae
	11.9 Microalgae as a Boon for Long-Chain Omega-3 PUFAs
	References
Chapter 12 Oleaginous Microalgae – A Potential Tool for Biorefinery-Based Industry
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Industrial Applications of Microalgae
	12.3 Use of Microalgae as Biofertilizer
	12.4 Microalgae as a Food Component
	12.5 Microalgae as a Nutraceutical
	12.6 Pigments and Carotenoids
	12.7 Phycobilins
	12.8 Fatty Acids
	12.9 Animal Nutrition
	12.10 Safety Related Issues Related to Microalgal Nutraceuticals
	12.11 Application in Pharmaceutical Industry
	12.12 Utilization of Microalgae in Cosmetics Production
	12.13 Microalgal Application in Wastewater Treatment
	12.14 Factors Affecting Lipid Production in Microalgae
		12.14.1 Light Intensity
		12.14.2 Temperature
		12.14.3 Nutrient Availability
		12.14.4 Salinity Stress
		12.14.5 Metal Stress
	12.15 Application of Microalgae in Biofuel Production
		12.15.1 Advantages of Using Microalgae for Biofuel Production
	12.16 Biodiesel
	12.17 Biogas
	12.18 Hydrogen
	12.19 Biosyngas
	12.20 Ethanol
	12.21 Cultivation of Microalgae for Biofuel Production
		12.21.1 Open Microalgal System
		12.21.2 Closed Microalgal System
		12.21.3 Hybrid Microalgal System
	12.22 Current Research Status in India
	12.23 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospectives
	12.24 Acknowledgements
	References
Index