Modifying Lipids for Use in Foods

Modifying lipids for use  in food......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Contributor contact details......Page 14
1.1 Introduction......Page 18
1.2 What properties are desired?......Page 19
1.3 Methods of modifying oils and fats......Page 21
1.4 Technological methods......Page 22
1.5 Biological methods......Page 23
1.6 References......Page 25
Part I Understanding food lipid structure  and composition......Page 26
2.1 Introduction......Page 28
2.2 Major vegetable sources of food lipids......Page 30
2.3 Minor vegetable sources of food lipids......Page 39
2.4 Extraction and uses......Page 42
2.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 43
2.7 References......Page 44
3.1 Introduction......Page 45
3.2 Animal fats......Page 46
3.3 Milk fat......Page 61
3.4 Future trends......Page 67
3.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 68
3.6 References......Page 69
4.1 Introduction......Page 73
4.2 Fish oils, their main characteristics and composition......Page 75
4.3 Production of fish oil......Page 81
4.4 Fish oil stability and protection......Page 85
4.5 Commercial fish oils......Page 87
4.6 Fish oil application......Page 91
4.7 References......Page 93
5.1 Introduction......Page 97
5.2 Oleaginous micro-organisms, fatty acids and lipid accumulation......Page 98
5.3 Large-scale cultivation of oleaginous micro-organisms, costs, oil extraction and refinement......Page 101
5.4 The production of an SCO rich in g-linolenic acid  (Oil of Javanicus)......Page 107
5.5 Production of arachidonic acid-SCO......Page 110
5.6 Production of DHA-rich SCOs......Page 113
5.7 Prospects for other PUFA-SCOs......Page 120
5.8 Future trends......Page 122
5.9 References......Page 126
6.1 Introduction......Page 131
6.2 Methods to measure compositional attributes......Page 132
6.3 Methods of measuring characteristics of edible oils......Page 136
6.4 Future trends......Page 141
6.6 References......Page 142
7.2 Partial hydrogenation......Page 145
7.3 Autoxidation, photo-oxidation and antioxidants......Page 147
7.4 Reactions of esters and other acyl compounds......Page 154
7.5 Metabolism of linoleic and linolenic acids......Page 155
7.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 157
7.7 References......Page 158
8.1 History and introduction......Page 159
8.2 Crystallization and melting......Page 160
8.3 Mechanical properties and structure......Page 169
8.4 Fat crystal networks and microstructure......Page 172
8.5 Structuring fat crystal network using processing......Page 179
8.6 Future trends......Page 182
8.7 References......Page 183
Part II Modifying lipids for use in food......Page 188
9.1 Introduction......Page 190
9.2 Trans fatty acid contents of food oils......Page 191
9.3 Formulation of food oils by hydrogenation (soybean based)......Page 193
9.4 Source oils for trans fatty acids......Page 202
9.5 Mechanism of hydrogenation/isomerization......Page 204
9.6 Future trends......Page 207
9.7 Alternatives to hydrogenation: low and zero trans fats......Page 209
9.8 References......Page 211
10.2 Different fractionation techniques......Page 218
10.3 Crystallization of fats......Page 223
10.4 The dry fractionation process......Page 225
10.5 Applications......Page 231
10.6 Future trends......Page 244
10.7 References......Page 246
11.1 Introduction......Page 251
11.2 Interesterification in general practice: an introduction of potential reactions and applications......Page 252
11.3 Typical interesterification in lipid modification......Page 256
11.4 Remarks and future trends......Page 280
11.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 282
11.7 References......Page 283
12.1 Introduction......Page 290
12.2 General perspective......Page 291
12.3 Plant breeding......Page 295
12.4 Oil crop modification......Page 300
12.5 Transgenic oil crop modification......Page 306
12.6 Plant lipid manipulation in the 21st century......Page 310
12.7 Future trends......Page 316
12.8 Sources of further information and advice......Page 317
12.9 References......Page 319
13.1 Introduction......Page 323
13.2   Motivation for bio-modification of animal lipids......Page 324
13.3 Specific bioactive fatty acids in animal products......Page 325
13.4 Genetic effects on the composition of animal lipids......Page 327
13.6 Methods of modifying animal fats by changes in diet......Page 331
13.7 Technological modifications......Page 341
13.8 Modified animal fats: the relevance of fortifying functional fatty acids in animal lipids......Page 344
13.9 Future trends......Page 345
13.11 References......Page 346
14.1 Introduction......Page 353
14.2 Concentration of n-3 PUFA by non-enzymatic methods......Page 354
14.3 Concentration of n-3 PUFA by lipase......Page 356
14.4 TAG concentrates of n-3 PUFA......Page 364
14.5 Positionally labeled structured TAG derived from  fish oil......Page 369
14.6 MLM type structured TAG comprising pure n-3  PUFA and MCFA......Page 371
14.7 Industrial aspects and future trends......Page 377
14.8 References......Page 380
15.1 Introduction......Page 386
15.2 Separation and purification of phospholipids......Page 389
15.3 Modification of phospholipids......Page 391
15.4 Phospholipid functionality and uses in food processing......Page 400
15.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 403
15.8 References......Page 404
Part III Applications of modified lipids in food......Page 408
16.1 Introduction......Page 410
16.2 Food emulsions......Page 411
16.3 Lipid modification and processing......Page 417
16.4 Factors affecting lipid emulsions......Page 436
16.5 Future trends......Page 442
16.7 References......Page 443
17.1 Introduction......Page 446
17.2 Requirements for trans-free fat compositions......Page 453
17.3 Production of trans-free fats and their application......Page 454
17.5 Future trends......Page 458
17.7 References......Page 459
18.1 Introduction......Page 461
18.2 Fat substitute chemistry......Page 465
18.3 Food applications......Page 470
18.4 Toxicology......Page 472
18.5 Future trends......Page 473
18.6 References......Page 474
19.1 Introduction......Page 479
19.2 Filled and imitation dairy products......Page 480
19.3 Changing milk fat composition......Page 495
19.4 References......Page 499
20.1 Introduction: cocoa butter and the use of modified lipids in chocolate and confectionery......Page 505
20.2 Preparation and use of alternatives to cocoa butter......Page 506
20.3 Improving the functionality of chocolate and confectionery with modified lipids......Page 520
20.4 Future trends......Page 529
20.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 530
20.6 References......Page 531
21.2 The frying process......Page 534
21.3 Chemical changes of fats and oils at frying temperature......Page 537
21.4 Factors affecting quality of frying oils......Page 540
21.5 Modified frying oils......Page 543
21.6 Quality control and safety of fresh frying oil......Page 547
21.7 Future trends......Page 551
21.9 References......Page 552
22.2 Speciality oils and fats......Page 556
22.3 Health benefits and claims for speciality oils......Page 557
22.4 Dietary fatty acids and health effects......Page 558
22.6   Use of MUFA and PUFA oils in food applications......Page 562
22.7 Use of spice extracts in gourmet oils......Page 570
22.8 Use of natural antioxidants......Page 571
22.9 Effect of dietary fatty acids in poultry and meat......Page 572
22.10 Structured lipids......Page 575
22.12 Conclusion and future trends......Page 577
22.14 References......Page 578
23.1 Introduction......Page 584
23.2 Uses and applications of SCOs rich in arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid......Page 585
23.3 Applications of ARA-SCO and DHA-SCO for inclusion in infant formulae......Page 587
23.4 Applications of DHA-rich oils for supplementation of adult diets......Page 591
23.5 Other applications of DHA-rich SCOs and biomass......Page 593
23.6 Safety assessments of SCOs......Page 595
23.7 References......Page 599
24.1 Introduction......Page 604
24.2 Food ingredients and functional foods......Page 605
24.3 Dietary supplements......Page 611
24.4 Pharmaceuticals......Page 615
24.5 Commercial fish oils for human consumption and marine PUFA concentrates......Page 616
24.6 New types of concentrates and future trends......Page 617
24.7 References......Page 618
Index......Page 620