Evolution of the Earth: Treatise on Geophysics

Cover......Page 1
Editor-in-Chief......Page 2
Volume Editors......Page 3
Preface......Page 4
How Should We Think of Earth and Earth Evolution?......Page 7
History and Themes......Page 8
Important Ideas......Page 10
Some Useful Estimates......Page 11
Commentary on Formation Models......Page 14
Commentary on Early Evolution Models......Page 15
Outstanding Questions......Page 16
References......Page 17
Introduction......Page 18
The Birth of the Solar System......Page 19
Meteorites......Page 21
Meteorites and the Composition of the Earth and Its Primary Reservoirs......Page 23
The Circumstellar Disk and the Composition of the Earth......Page 26
Dynamics of Planet Formation......Page 28
The Age of the Earth......Page 29
Short-Lived Nuclides and Early Processes......Page 32
Rates of Earth Accretion and Differentiation......Page 34
First Principles of Chemical Constraints on Core Formation......Page 36
The\r\'Deep Magma Ocean’ Model of Core Formation......Page 38
Core Segregation during Growth of the Earth......Page 40
Oxidation State of the Earth during and after Accretion......Page 42
Isotopic Evidence for Volatile Losses from the Earth during Accretion......Page 43
Hidden Reservoirs,\rImpact Erosion, and the Composition of the Earth......Page 46
Concluding Overview......Page 48
References......Page 50
Introduction and Present State of Cores in Solar System Bodies......Page 56
The Relevance of Iron Meteorites......Page 57
History of Ideas on Core Formation......Page 59
Accretion......Page 60
Decay of radioactive nuclides......Page 62
Heating due to the energy of impacts......Page 63
Heating through the reduction of gravitational potential energy......Page 65
Differentiation Mechanisms......Page 66
Percolation......Page 67
Metal-silicate separation in a magma ocean......Page 70
Summary and implications for chemical equilibration......Page 73
Core-Formation Timescales......Page 74
Introduction to siderophile element geochemistry......Page 76
Metal-silicate equilibration at high pressure and temperature......Page 78
Inefficient core formation......Page 81
Addition of outer-core material to the lower mantle......Page 82
Metal-silicate fractionation models......Page 83
Light Elements in the Core......Page 85
Summary......Page 88
References......Page 89
nomenclature......Page 96
Earth Accretion and the Giant Impact Hypothesis......Page 97
Geochemical Evidence for Magma Ocean......Page 99
Adiabats......Page 100
Lower Mantle......Page 101
Viscosity of the Magma Ocean......Page 103
Convective Heat Flux......Page 105
Convective Velocities......Page 106
How Are Crystals Suspended by Convection?......Page 107
Energetics of Convective Suspension......Page 108
Conditions for Equilibrium Crystallization......Page 109
Nucleation......Page 110
Ostwald Ripening......Page 112
Crystallization beyond the Rheological Transition......Page 113
Cessation of Suspension......Page 114
Cessation of Liquid-State Convection......Page 115
Solid-State Convection......Page 116
Summary......Page 117
References......Page 118
Introduction......Page 125
Accretion......Page 126
Noble Gases: Evidence for Early,\rRapid Degassing......Page 128
Deuterium/Hydrogen Ratios and Earth’s Hydrosphere......Page 129
Impacts and Volatile Loss......Page 130
Formation and Evolution of the Atmosphere......Page 132
Ancient Rocks: Signatures of Damp Material in and on the Early Earth......Page 133
Constraints on the Volume of the Oceans through Time......Page 134
Degassing and Regassing Rates......Page 135
The Residence Mechanisms and Effects of Water on Mantle Properties......Page 137
Rheology......Page 140
Water/Hydrogen in the Core?......Page 141
References......Page 142
Introduction......Page 148
Physical Preliminaries......Page 149
Global Heat Balance......Page 150
Heat Transfer by Seafloor Spreading......Page 151
Parametrized Convection......Page 152
Changes in the Mode of Convection......Page 153
Pressure-Release Melting at Mid-Oceanic Ridges......Page 155
Aftermath of the Moon-Forming Impact......Page 157
Steady-State Mush Ocean and Transition to Plate Tectonics......Page 158
Zircon Evidence......Page 160
Seafloor Spreading and Oceanic Crust......Page 162
Subduction and Continental Lithosphere......Page 163
The Rate of Plate Tectonics over Time......Page 164
Biological Implications......Page 165
Conclusions and Musings......Page 167
Acknowledgments......Page 168
References......Page 170
Introduction......Page 173
General......Page 175
Problems with the simple\r\'andesite model’......Page 176
The Eu dilemma......Page 177
Crustal foundering......Page 178
The Lithospheric Mantle and Continent Stability......Page 179
General......Page 180
Timing and Rates of Crustal Growth......Page 181
The Reymer and Schubert Dilemma......Page 182
General......Page 183
Mantle Overturn and Crust Formation Episodes......Page 187
Phase I......Page 189
Phase IV......Page 190
The Sumozero-Kenozero and Kostomuksha Orogeny (sim2.8-2.9Ga)......Page 191
The Birimian Orogeny (sim2.2Ga)......Page 192
References......Page 193
Cooling and the Age of Earth......Page 198
The Convecting Mantle......Page 199
A Reference Thermal History......Page 201
Internal Radioactivity and the Present Cooling Rate......Page 203
Effect of Volatiles on Mantle Rheology......Page 204
Two-Layer Mantle Convection......Page 205
Static Lithosphere Convection,\rand Venus......Page 206
Coupled Core-Mantle Evolution and the Geodynamo......Page 207
Episodic Histories......Page 209
Strong Compositional Lithosphere......Page 210
Implications for Tectonic Evolution......Page 211
Viability of Plate Tectonics......Page 212
History of Plumes......Page 213
References......Page 215
Introduction......Page 218
Thermodynamic Properties......Page 219
Light elements......Page 220
Temperature Structure......Page 221
The CMB Region......Page 223
Dynamo Behavior Over Time......Page 224
Formation and Initial State......Page 225
Core cooling......Page 226
Maintaining the geodynamo......Page 227
Present-day energy budget......Page 228
Thermal evolution......Page 229
Parameters......Page 230
Inner-core age......Page 231
Initial core temperature......Page 234
Inner-core growth......Page 235
Core-mantle boundary......Page 236
Summary......Page 237
References......Page 238
Polar Motion and Length-of-Day Variations through (Geological) Time......Page 243
Variations in the l.o.d......Page 245
Polar Motion: The Annual and Chandler Wobbles......Page 247
Global Theory of the GIA Process......Page 250
Computation of the Rotational Response to Earth-Ice-Ocean Interactions in the Ice Age......Page 253
The\r\'Equivalent Earth Model’ Approach of Munk and McDonald (1960)......Page 254
Models of the History of Variations in the Elements of Earth’s Moment of Inertia Tensor on the Multimillenial Timescale of the Ice-Age Cycle......Page 256
Ancient Eclipse Observations and the Nontidal Acceleration of Rotation......Page 259
Millenial Timescale Polar Wander and the Glaciation-Deglaciation Cycle......Page 261
Earth’s Rotational Response to the Cyclic Reglaciation Cycle of Late Pleistocene Time: Data-Model Intercomparisons......Page 263
The Influence of Rotational Feedback upon Postglacial RSL History and Its Impact upon Predictions of Earth Rotation Anomalies......Page 264
Measurements of the Strength of the Expected Quadrapolar\r\'Signature’ of the Rotational Feedback Effect upon Postglacial Sea-Level Histories......Page 270
The Impact of Variations in the Geometry of Earth’s Orbit around the Sun upon Earth System Evolution......Page 279
The Astronomical Imprint on Oxygen-Isotopic Records from Deep-Sea Sedimentary Cores......Page 280
\r\'Orbital Tuning’ and the Age of the Brunhes-Matuyama Geomagnetic Polarity Transition......Page 283
Earth Rotation Variations and Mantle Convective Mixing......Page 284
References......Page 290
Introduction......Page 294
Mars......Page 297
Inflammable Atmosphere......Page 298
Permanent Liquid Water......Page 299
Carbon-Based Life......Page 300
Spheroidal Weathering......Page 302
Convex Slope......Page 303
Argillic Horizon......Page 304
Civilization......Page 305
Origin of Life on Earth......Page 306
Geological Records......Page 307
Other Worlds......Page 308
Life and Air......Page 309
Life and Water......Page 311
Life and Soil......Page 313
Life and Rocks......Page 314
References......Page 316