Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy: Philosophy between 500 and 1500

Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
List of Topics
About the Editor
Editorial Board
Contributors
A
	ʿAbd al-Laīf al-Baġdādī
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Abdurrahmān Bistāmī
		Historical Background
		Philosophical Teachings and the Classification of the Sciences
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Abraham ibn Ezra
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Abu Bakr al-Bāqillānī
		Life and Works
		Teaching
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Abu Bakr al-Rāzī, Muammad ibn Zakarīyāʾ (Rhazes)
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Abu Bishr Mattā ibn Yunus
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Biographers
			Secondary Sources
	Abu Hāshim al-Jubbā´ī
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Abu L-ʿAbbās Lawkarī
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Modern Publications
	Abu L-Barakāt al-Baġdādī
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Abu l-Faraj ibn al-ʿlbrī (Barhebraeus)
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Abu Sulaymān al-Sijistānī al-Maniqī
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Biographies
			Studies
			Secondary Sources
	Adam Wodeham
		Biography
		Epistemology in the Norwich Lectures
		Indivisibilism
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Adelard of Bath
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Aesthetics
		Traditional View
		Theories of Beauty
		Treatises on the Arts
		A Medieval Aesthetic: The Traditional Approach
		Revisionist´s Objections: Arguments Against the Idea of Medieval Aesthetics
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Aesthetics, Byzantine
		The Nature of Byzantine Aesthetics
		The Sources of Byzantine Aesthetics
		Beauty and Other Aesthetic Concepts
		The Negation and the Acceptance of an Art That Appeals to the Senses
		The Theory of Image (Icon)
		Influence
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Afal al-Dīn al-Kāshānī (Bābā Afal)
		His Thought
		Edited Works
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Amad ibn anbal
		Life
		Works and Thought
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Alan of Lille
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Albert of Saxony
		Lemma
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Albert the Great
		Life, Work, Influence
		Thought
			Logic
			Metaphysics
			Ethics
			Sciences
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Albertism
		What Is Albertism?
		Johannes De Nova Domo and Heymericus De Campo
		Criticism of Nominalism
		Albertism and Thomism
		The Institutional Factor
		The Question of Doctrinal Unity
		Doctrinal Issues
			Logic
			Individuation
			Human Knowledge
			Being and Essence
			The Proper Object of Logic
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Alchemy in the Arab World
		The History
		The Texts and Their Contents
		Philosophical Texts
		Allegorical Texts and Recipes
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Alchemy in the Latin World
		Before the Latin Translations of Arabic Texts
		The Latin Translations of Arabic Alchemical Treatises
		The Thirteenth Century
		The Fourteenth Century
		The Fifteenth Century
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Alexander of Aphrodisias and Arabic Aristotelianism
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Alexander of Hales
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Alexandrian Tradition into Arabic: Medicine
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Secondary Sources
	Alexandrian Tradition into Arabic: Philosophy
		Introduction
		General Appraisals
		Textual Evidence
		Ways of Transmission
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	`Allama al-illī
		His Life
		His Thought
		Al-illī´s Main Edited Works
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-ʿĀmirī, Abu l-asan
		Biographical Information
		Thought/Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Āmulī, Sayyid aydar
		His Life
		His Thought
		His Works
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Anselm of Canterbury
		Biographical Information
		Influences
		Works
		Dialectic
		Faith Seeking Understanding
		The Monologion
		The Proslogion and Anselm´s Argument
		Will, Choice, and Freedom
		Atonement
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
			Websites
	Apollonius of Tyana
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Arabic Philosophical Texts, Jewish Translations of
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Arabic Texts: Natural Philosophy, Latin Translations of
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Arabic Texts: Philosophy, Latin Translations of
		Introduction
		The School of Toledo and Gundissalinus
		Frederick II and Michael Scot
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Arethas of Caesarea
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Aristotelianism in the Greek, Latin, Syriac, Arabic, and Hebrew Traditions
		Translations, Availability, and Methods of Study
		Attitudes to Aristotle
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Secondary Sources
	Aristotle, Arabic
		Organon
		Categories
		De interpretatione
		Prior Analytics
		Posterior Analytics
		Topics
		Sophistical Refutations
		Rhetoric
		Poetics and Physics
		De caelo
		Generation and Corruption
		Meteorologica
		De anima
		Parva naturalia
		Zoological Treatises
		Metaphysics
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			General
			Organon, Categories, De interpretatione, Prior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, Sophistical Refutations
			Rhetoric
			De caelo
			Generation and Corruption
			Meteorologica
			De anima
			Parva naturalia
			Zoological Treatises
			Metaphysics
			Secondary Sources
	Aristotle, Arabic: Physics
		The Arabic Reception of Aristotle´s Physics
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Translations
			Secondary Sources
	Aristotle, Arabic: Poetics
		The Arabic Reception of Aristotle´s Poetics
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Translations
			Secondary Sources
	Arnaldus de Villanova
		Biographical Information
		Thought of Arnald de Villanova
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī
		His Life
		His Thought
		Works of Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Atomism
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Secondary Sources
	Augustine
		Skepticism
		Language
		Epistemology
		Mind-Body Dualism
		The Will
		God
		Creation
		Time
		Evil
		Ethics
		Just War
		Philosophy of History
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Latin Texts
			English Translations
			Collections
			Individual Works in Translation
			Secondary Sources
	Augustine in Byzantium
		Phases of the Byzantines´ Knowledge of Augustine
			From the Beginning Up to the Middle Thirteenth Century
			From 1281 to the Middle Fourteenth Century
		Middle Fourteenth Century Onward
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Augustine of Ancona
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Avicebron
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
B
	Bahmanyār ibn Marzubān
		Life
		Works and Thought
		Influence
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Balkhī, Abu Zayd
		Life
		Works
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Primary Fragmentary Sources in Translation
			Secondary Sources
	Barlaam of Calabria
		Life
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Bartholomaeus Arnoldi de Usingen
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Basil Bessarion
		Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Baalyusī, Abu Muammad ibn al-Sīd
		Life
		Works
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Being
		The Semantics of Ens, Esse, and Est
		From Semantics to Metaphysics
		The Analogy Versus Univocity of Being and the Thesis of Real Distinction
		From Metaphysics, Back to Semantics
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Bernard of Clairvaux
		Biography
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Bero Magni de Ludosia
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Berthold of Moosburg
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Bīrunī, Abu Rayān
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Boethius
		Biography
		Works and Thought
		Influence
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Boethius of Dacia
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Boethius´ De topicis differentiis, Commentaries on
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Bonaventure
		The Life of Bonaventure
		The Literary Works of Bonaventure
		The Bonaventurean Synthesis
		The Ontological Argument
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Latin Editions of Bonaventure
			English Translations of Bonaventure
			Secondary Sources
	Bursī, al-āfi Rajab al-
		His Life and Posterity
		His Thought
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			I. Unedited works of āfi Rajab al-Bursī
			II. Edited works of āfi Rajab al-Bursī
			Other Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
C
	Canon Law
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Carolingian Renaissance
		The Carolingian Renaissance and Carolingian Philosophy
		The Founders: Theodulf of Orleans and Alcuin
		The Circle of Alcuin
		Gottschalk and the Debate on Predestination
		Ratramnus of Corbie, the Soul, and Universals
		Ninth-Century Glosses to School Texts
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Categories
		Aristotle´s Categories
		The Subject Matter of the Categories
		The Sufficiency of the Categories
		Problems About Accidents
		Problems About Relations
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Categories, Commentaries on Aristotle´s
		The Commentary Tradition
		Interpretive Issues
		What Is a Category?
		What Does Aristotle Intend to Categorize?
		How Many Categories Are There?
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Causality
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Certainty
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Church Fathers
		Meaning of the Expression ``Church Father´´
		The Community of the Fathers
		The Apostolic Fathers
		The Apologists
		The Birth of Christian Schools
		The First Latin Fathers
		Clement of Alexandria and Origen
		The Golden Age of the Fathers
		The Last of the Fathers
		Influence of the Church Fathers
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Cicero in Political Philosophy
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Civil (Roman) Law
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Conciliarism
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Conscience
		Bonaventure
		Thomas Aquinas
		Duns Scotus and William of Ockham
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Consciousness
		Conceptual Changes
		Phenomenality and Intentionality
		Knowledge of the Essence of the Soul
		Knowledge of the Acts of the Soul
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Secondary Sources
	Consequences, Theory of
		History
		Rules
		Philosophical Interpretation
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Contemplative Happiness and Civic Virtue
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Corporation Theory
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Cristoforo Landino
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
D
	Dante Alighieri
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Dawānī, Jalāl al-Dīn
		His Life
		His Thought
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Studies
	Dāwud al-Qayarī
		Life
		Works and Ideas
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	De caelo, Commentaries on Aristotle´s
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	De generatione et corruptione, Commentaries on Aristotle´s
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Demetrios Kydones
		Life
		Thought
		Cross-Referencecs
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Denys the Carthusian
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Dietrich of Freiberg
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	irār ibn Amr
		Biographical Information
		Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
	Divine Law
		Introduction
		Judah Halevi
		Al-Fārābī
		Moses Maimonides
		Thomas Aquinas
		Baruch Spinoza
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Divine Power
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Divine Suffering (Theopaschism)
		Anthropomorphism and Divine Suffering Within the Biblical Narrative
		Hellenistic Philosophy and Divine Suffering
		Divine Impassibility in the Second and Third Centuries of the Eastern Church
		Nicene Creed and Divine Suffering
		Cyril of Alexandria
		Augustine of Hippo and the Latin Tradition on Divine Impassibility
		Thomas Aquinas and Divine Suffering
		Divine Suffering and Medieval Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Books
			Journal Articles
			Book Chapters
	Domingo de Soto
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Dominicus Gundissalinus
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Works
			Translations by Gundissalinus
			Translations with Gundissalinus´ Participation
			Secondary Sources
	Doxographies, Graeco-Arabic
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Durand of St. Pourçain
		Corpus of the Article
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
E
	Economic Thought in the Middle Ages
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Emotions
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Epistemology
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Epistemology, Byzantine
		Epistemology in Byzantium
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Essence and Existence
		Early Influences
		The Scholastic Controversies
		Final Remarks
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ethics
		Moral Philosophy and Moral Science
		Happiness and the Supreme Good
		The Connection of the Virtues
		Dispositions, Actions, and Free Choice
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ethics, Arabic
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ethics, Byzantine
		The Nature of Byzantine Ethics
		The Sources of Byzantine Ethics
			Aristotelian Ethics and Its Byzantine Reception
		Texts and Thinkers
		Concepts and Themes
			Virtues and Vices
			Free Will and the Problem of Evil
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Ethical Treatises
			Commentaries on Aristotle´s Nicomachean Ethics
			Secondary Sources
	Ethics, Jewish
		Jewish Ethics: A Religio-Philosophic Discourse
		Rationalist Religious Ethics in Islam
		Jewish Ethics in Medieval Christendom
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Eustratios of Nicaea
		Biography
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
F
	al-Fārābī, Abu Nar
		Biographical Information
		Works and Influence
		Thought
			The Hierarchical Structure of Being
			The System of Science
			Philosophy as Pedagogy
			How al-Fārābī Composed His Political Works and How to Read Them
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources (Representing Different Interpretations)
	al-Fārābī, Latin Translations of
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Feudal Law
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Form and Matter
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Francesc Marbres
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Francis of Marchia
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Francis of Meyronnes
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Francisco de Vitoria
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Future Contingents
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
G
	Gabriel Biel
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Galen, Arabic
		Biography
		Noncanonical Works
			Biography
			Philosophy
			Logic
			Ethics
			Anatomy
			Physiology
			Diagnostics
			Medicine
			Pharmacology
		Hippocratic Commentaries
		Pseudo-Galen
		Compendia and Synopses, Arabic Commentaries
		Indirect Tradition
		The Translators
		Galen and Hippocrates
		Language
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Garlandus the Computist
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Ġazālī, Abu āmid Muammad
		Life and Works
		Thought
			Demonstration and Doubt
			Contingency and Necessity
			The Divine Attributes, God-Talk, and Creation
			Psychology
			Ethics
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	George of Trebizond
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Bibliography
			Primary
			Secondary
	George Pachymeres
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	George Scholarios (Gennadios II)
		Life
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Gerald Odonis
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Gersonides
		Biography
		Philosophy
		Immortality of the Soul
		Divine Knowledge and Future Contingents
		Divine Providence
		References
			Primary Texts
			Secondary Works
	al-Ghazālī´s Maqāid al-Falāsifa, Latin Translation of
		Translation
		Reception
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Gilbert of Poitiers
		Biography, Apprenticeship, and General Characteristics of His Philosophy
		Ontology
			Forms and Substances
			Singularity and Modal Theory of Individuality
			Universals and the Realism of Forms
		Philosophy of Language
			Hermeneutics
			The Meaning of Nouns and the Theory of Predication in the Philosophy of Nature
			The Three Speculative Sciences
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Giles of Rome, Political Thought
		Biographical Information
		Overview
		On the Rule of Princes
			Context
			Structure
			Key Concepts
			Foundations
			Influence
		On Ecclesiastical Power
			Context
			Structure
			Key Concepts
			Foundations
			Influence
			Consistency
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			On the Rule of Princes
			On the Abdication of the Pope
			On Ecclesiastical Power
			Secondary Sources
	Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Godfrey of Fontaines
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Gottschalk of Nepomuk
		Thought
		Impact
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Greek Texts Translated into Hebrew
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Gregory Akindynos
		Biography
		The Doctrine
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Gregory of Rimini
		Life, Works, and Thought
		Cognition, Philosophical Psychology, and Theory of Knowledge
		Philosophical Theology: Divine Foreknowledge, Predestination, and God´s Power to Change the Past
		Impact
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Gregory Palamas
		The Doctrine
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Guido Terreni
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
H
	Happiness
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Hasdai Crescas
		Biographical Information
		Philosophical System
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Heloise
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Henry Harclay
		The Ontology of Universals and Relations
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Manuscripts
			Edited Works
			Secondary Sources
	Henry of Ghent
		Biographical Information
		Thought
			Knowledge, Intellect, and Will
			Metaphysics
			Analogy of Being and Knowledge of God
			Other Characteristic Doctrines
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Ancient Editions
			New Critical Editions
			Volumes published up to 2009:
			Henry of Ghent:
			Secondary Sources
	Heresy
		Thomas Aquinas
		William of Ockham
		After the Middle Ages
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Hermes Trismegistus
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Hervaeus Natalis
		Biography
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Heymeric of Camp
		Life and Work
		Heymeric and Nicholas of Cusa
		Heymeric and Albertism
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Works
			Literature
	Hildegard of Bingen
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Hugh of St. Victor
		Hugh´s Pedagogical Division of Philosophy
		Biblical Exegesis
		Theological Speculation
		Spirituality
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
I
	Ibn Abī Jumhur al-Ahsā´i
		His Life
		His Thought
		Bibliography
			Edited Works of Ibn Abī Jumhur
			Other Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn al-Malāimī, Rukn al-Dīn Mamud
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn al-Sam
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Biographers
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn al-ayyib
		Biographical Information
		Ibn al-ayyib´s Thought and Philosophy
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn ʿArabī, Abu Bakr Muammad Muyiddīn
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Bājja, Abu Bakr ibn al-Sāʾiġ (Avempace)
		Life
		The Earlier Works
		The Works on Ethics, Politics, and Noetics
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Farīġun
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn azm of Cordoba
		Biography
		Sciences
		Logic
		Religion
		Love and Beauty
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn indu, Abu l-Faraj
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Kammuna, ʿIzz al-Dawla
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Biographers
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zayd ʿAbdarramān
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Translations
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Masarra, Muammad ibn ʿAbdallāh
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Latin Translations of
		The Thirteenth Century: The Aristotelian Commentaries
		The Fourteenth Century: The Destructio destructionis and Other Personal Works
		The Renaissance and the Hebrew-to-Latin Translations
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Rushd, Muammad ibn Amad al-afīd (Averroes)
		Life
		Cycles of Knowledge
		Argument and Assent
		Psychology
		Cosmology and Metaphysics
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Sabʿīn, ʿAbd al-aqq
		The Cultural Environment and Intellectual Development of Ibn Sab`īn
		The Works and Style of Ibn Sab`īn
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), Latin Translations of
		Translations and Editions of Authentic Works (Medieval and Renaissance)
		Pseudo-Avicenna
		Doctrinal Influences
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Sīnā, Abu ʿAlī (Avicenna)
		Biographical Information
		Philosophy
			General Remarks
			Logic
			Psychology
			Metaphysics
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Arabic
			Latin
			Translations into Western Languages
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Suwār (Ibn al-Khammār)
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Biographers
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn ufayl, Abu Bakr (Abubacer)
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn umlus
		Biographical Information
		Ibn umlus´ Thought and Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ibn Zurʿa, ʿĪsā ibn Isāq
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Biographers
			Secondary Sources
	Ikhwān al-afāʾ, Encyclopedia of
		Biographical Information on the Authors
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Translations
			Secondary Sources
	Impetus
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Secondary Sources
	Induction
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Inquisition
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Insolubles
		Early Solutions
		The Sentence Signifying Its Own Truth
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Intension and Remission of Forms
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Secondary Sources
	Intention, Primary and Secondary
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Intentionality
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Internal Senses
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Intuitive and Abstractive Cognition
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Isaac Israeli
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Isidore of Seville
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ismāʿīlī Philosophical Tradition
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
J
	Jacques Almain
		Life
		Teachings
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	James of Metz
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	James of Viterbo
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Jean Regis
		Epistemology
		The Theological Discourse and Its Relation to Faith
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Jerome of Prague
		Biography
			Thought
				Writings and Their Sources
				Shield of Faith
				God and the Divine Ideas
				Theory of Creation
				Created Universe: Harmony, Real Universals, Science, and Logic
				Use of the Bible
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Jesuit Political Thought
		The Place of Politics in the Jesuit Curriculum
		The Premises of Jesuit Political Thought
		The Principles of Order
		The Authority of Specific Rulers and Regimes
		``Absolute´´ Authority
		Tyranny and Tyrannicide
		The Papal Potestas indirecta
		The Church and the State
		Reason of State
		Natural Law and Natural Rights
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Jodocus Trutfetter
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Johannes Brammart
		Biography
		The Prologue and Principium of Brammart´s Commentary to the first book of the Sentences
		Brammart on Mediated Knowledge and the Beatific Vision
		The Object of Knowledge and Belief
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Johannes de Mirecuria
		Thought
		Bibliography
			Primary sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Baconthorpe
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Buridan
		Life, Influence, and Works
		Logic
		Metaphysics and Natural Philosophy
		Ethics
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Calvin, Political Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Capreolus
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Dumbleton
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Duns Scotus
		Life and Works
		Natural Theology
		Metaphysics
		Theory of Knowledge
		Ethics and Moral Psychology
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Primary Texts in Latin
			Primary Texts in English Translation
			Secondary Sources
	John Fortescue
		Life
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Gerson
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Italos
		Biography
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Mair
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Maxentius and the Scythian Monks
		Christianity and Monasticism within Scythia Minor
		Theopaschite Controversy of 519
		Rereading Chalcedon and Cyril on Divine Suffering
		Augustine of Hippo and Divine Grace
		Literary Works of John Maxentius and the Scythian Monks
		Legacy of the Scythian Monks
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Latin Editions of John Maxentius and the Scythian Monks
			English Translations of John Maxentius and the Scythian Monks
			Secondary Sources
	John of Damascus
		Biographical Information
		Works
		Philosophical Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Critical edition of (most of) his authentic prose works:
			Secondary Sources
	John of Jandun
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John of La Rochelle
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John of Paris
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John of Reading
		Prologue to the Sentences
		Theology as a Science
		Further Questions
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John of Salisbury
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Pecham
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources (Partial List)
			Secondary Sources (Partial)
	John Philoponus
		Life and Works
		Philoponus Against Aristotle on the Void
		Dynamics
		Prime Matter
		Place
		Light
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Scottus Eriugena
		Biographical Information
		Eriugena´s Thought
			The Treatise on Predestination (c. 851)
			The Translation of Dionysius the Areopagite (c. 860-c. 862 CE)
			The Dialogue Periphyseon De divisione naturae (c. 867)
		Eriugena´s Influence
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			English Translations of Eriugena
			Secondary Sources
	John Torquemada
		Life and Works
		Summa de ecclesia (1453)
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	John Wyclif
		Logic and Philosophy of Language
		Metaphysics and Epistemology
		The Necessity of God´s Knowledge
		Wyclif´s Political Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Juan Luís Vives
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Judah Halevi
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			English
			Secondary Sources
	al-Juwaynī
		Life and Works
		Teaching
		The Theory of āl
		The Proof of God
		Human Acts
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
K
	Kalām
		Development of the Genre and It Methods
		The First Period: Muʿtazilite kalām
		The Second Period: Sunni kalām
		The Third Period: The Appropriation of falsafa in kalām
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Khafrī, Shams al-Dīn al-
		His Life
		His Thought
		Bibliography
			Edited Works of Shams al-Dīn al-Khafrī
			I. On Logic
			II. On Philosophy and Kalām
			III. On Hermeneutic and adīth
			Other Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Khojazāda
		Life and Theological Teachings
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Kindī, Abu Yusuf Yaʿqub ibn Isāq
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Kindī, Latin Translations of
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
L
	Lambert of Lagny
		Life and Work
		The Logica or Summa Lamberti
		Some Theoretical Issues of the Summa
			Universals
			Parts and Wholes
			Signification
			Supposition
			Appellation
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Landolfo Caracciolo
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Laws of Nature
		Laws of Nature
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Leo Magentenos
		Biography
		Works
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Logic in the Arabic and Islamic World
		Logic in the Arabic and Islamic World
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Editions
			Translations
			Secondary Sources
	Logic, Arabic, in the Latin Middle Ages
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Logic, Byzantine
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Logic, Jewish
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Lorenzo Valla
		Life
		Valla´s Thought: Some Basic Convictions
		The Critique of Aristotelian-Scholastic Thought
		Philosophical Relevance
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
M
	Manuel Chrysoloras
		Biography
		Thought and Works
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Marsilius of Inghen
		Biography
		Writings
		Main Thoughts
			Universals and Supposition Theory
			Aristotle, Natural Reason, Faith
			Categories, Motion, Univocity of Substantial and Accidental Being
			Commentary on the Sentences, Multiple Sources, Eternity of the World
		Influence
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Marsilius of Padua
		Biography
		Political Ideas
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Martin Luther, Political Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Martin of Dacia
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Mathematics and Philosophy in the Arab World
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Matthew of Aquasparta
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Maximos Planoudes
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			On King
			Scholia on Boethius´ Consolation
			Calculation According to the Indians
			Commentary on Diophantus of Alexandria
			Grammatical Works
			Letters
			Translations
			Secondary Sources
	Maximus the Confessor
		The Life of Maximus the Confessor
		The Literary Works of Maximus
			Maximus´ Synthesis
			Maximus´ Christology
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Medicine and Philosophy
		Alexandrine Teaching and the Ancient Heritage
		The Systems of Arabic Authors
			The Instrumentalism of Avicenna
			Averroes and the Subordination of Medicine to Philosophy
		The Salernitan Masters and the Physica
		Scholastic Teaching and the Synthesis of Greek and Arabic Contributions
			The Search for an Agreement
			The Influence of Averroes and the Decline of Philosophy in Medicine
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Medicine in the Arab World
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Secondary Sources
	Medicine: Byzantine
		Medicine in Byzantium
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Meister Eckhart
		Works
		Recent Publications
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources (Most Recent Publications)
	Mental Language
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Mental Representation
		The Ancient Background and the Formation of the Concept
		Thomas Aquinas and the Conformality View
		Peter John Olivi and the Rejection of the Conformality View
		Henry of Ghent and John Duns Scotus and the Introduction of Mental Content
		William of Ockham and Mental Language
		John Buridan and Vague Concept
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Mental Word/Concepts
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Mereology
		Introduction
		Types of Parts and Wholes
		Differences Between the Different Types of Parts and Wholes
		Dependence and Persistence
		Identity and the Problem of the Many
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Metaphysics
		The Subject Matter of Metaphysics
		Being and Its Necessary Concomitants
		The Categories
		Grades and Modes of Existence
		Universals
		Nominalism and Ontological Reduction
		Individuals and Individuation
		Composition, Identity, and Emergence
		Dependence and Persistence
		Time and Necessity
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Metaphysics, Byzantine
		Byzantine Metaphysics: Ens Reale or Fictum?
		Special Topics of Byzantine Metaphysics
			The Ontological Status of ``Universals´´
			The Structure of the Divine Being
			Mediated Versus Direct Derivation of Beings from the First Principle (Plethon Versus Scholarios)
			A Metaphysics of Icons?
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Michael of Ephesus
		Biography
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Michael of Massa
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Michael Psellos
		Biography
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Mirrors for Princes
		Roots in Late Antiquity and in the Earliest Medieval Centuries
		Carolingian Mirrors for Princes
		Twelfth Century
		Thirteenth Century: From Compilation to the Reception of Aristotle
		Examples from the Fourteenth Century
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Miskawayh, Abu ʿAlī
		Biographical Information
		Thought/Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Modal Theories and Modal Logic
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Modistae
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Moral Dilemma Theory
		Development of the Concept of Perplexitas
		Moral Dilemma Strategies
		Moral Principles
		Later Theorizing
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Moses Maimonides
		Biographical Information
		Philosophy
			The Guide of the Perplexed: An Overview
			God
			Creation
			The God of Nature Versus the God of History: Miracles and Prophecy
			The Problem of Evil, Providence, and Human Perfection
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Muʿammar ibn ʿAbbād
		Biographical Information
		Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
	al-Mubashshir ibn Fātik
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Mullā Shams al-Dīn al-Fanārī
		Life
		Works and Philosophical Teachings
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Music, Medieval
		Classical Sources
		The Early and Central Middle Ages
		The High and Late Middle Ages
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
N
	Natural Law
		Justinian and Gratian
			Problems Arising from the Law Texts
		Thomas Aquinas
		Duns Scotus
		William of Ockham
		Gregory of Rimini
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Natural Philosophy
		Introduction
		From Athens to Western Europe
		The Universities of Paris and Oxford
		Change and Motion
		What Is Motion?
		The Causes of Motion
		Natural Motion: The Explanation of Gravity and Accelerated Free Fall
		Violent Motion: The Explanation of Projectile Motion
		The Quantification of the Causes of Motion
		Logic and Geometry in Natural Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
	Natural Philosophy, Arabic
		Introduction
		Philosophy of Nature in the Kalām Tradition
		Philosophy of Nature in the Falsafa
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
	Natural Philosophy, Byzantine
		Natural Philosophy in Byzantium
		General Physics
		Cosmology
		Elemental Theory
		Psychology
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Natural Philosophy, Jewish
		Maimonides: One Single, Permanent Nature of Reality
		Alternatives to the Natural Order
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Natural Rights
		Meanings of Ius, Dominium
		The Chief Natural Rights
		Property and the Right to Use Things
		Political Rights
		The Definition of Rights
		The Origin of Rights
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Op
			Brev
			Oq
			Secondary Sources
	Nicholas Chamaëtos Kabasilas
		Biography
		The Teaching
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Nicholas of Autrecourt
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Correspondence and the Articles of the Condemnation
			Exigit ordo executionis et Quaestio Utrum visio creature rationalis beatificabilis per Verbum possit intendi naturaliter
			Secondary Sources
	Nicholas of Cusa
		Life and Works
		De Concordantia Catholica
		Pro-Papal Writings and Reform Proposals
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Nicholas of Methone
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Nicholas Oresme
		Biography
		Oresme and Buridan
		Mathematics and Its Application in Natural Philosophy
		Opposition to Astrology
		Concept of Time
		Translations
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Nicomachean Ethics, Commentaries on Aristotle´s
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Nikephoros Blemmydes
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Influence
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Nikephoros Choumnos
		Life
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Nikephoros Gregoras
		Life
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
O
	Obligations Logic
		Obligations Logic
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Optics, Latin
		The Sources of Medieval Latin Optics
		Writers and Texts of Medieval Latin Optics
		Key Issues of Latin Optics
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Oxford Calculators
		Historical and Systematic Development of the Movement
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Cited in this Article
			Secondary Sources
P
	Pain
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Parisian Condemnation of 1277
		The Protagonists and the Circumstances
		The Events that Led to the 1277 Parisian Condemnation
		The Principal Doctrines Censored
		Beyond Heterodoxy: Other Issues of the Parisian Condemnation
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Parva Naturalia, Commentaries on Aristotle´s
		The Rediscovery of the Parva Naturalia (Before c. 1270)
		The ``Standard´´ Parva Naturalia (c. 1270-c. 1366)
		Delimitation and Reformulation (c. 1366-1500)
			Delimitation
			Reformulation
			Other Commentaries
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Greek-Latin Translations
			Albertus Magnus
			Albertus de Saxonia?
			Anonymi
			Averroes
			Boethius Dacus
			Galfredus de Aspall
			Gualterus Burlaeus
			Jacobus de Duaco
			Joannes Buridanus
			Joannes de Janduno
			Matheolus Perusinus
			Nicolaus Oresmius
			Nicolaus Tempelfeld de Brega
			Petrus de Alvernia
			Petrus de Hibernia
			Petrus Hispanus
			Radulphus Brito
			Rogerus Bacon
			Sigerus de Brabantia?
			Simon of Faversham
			Thomas Aquinas
			Ugo Bentius
			Secondary Sources
	Paul of Pergula
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Paul of Venice
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter Abelard
		Logic
		Metaphysics
		Ethics
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter Auriol
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter Damian
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter de Rivo
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter Helias
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter John Olivi
		Biography
		Precursor of Modern Thought
		Social Philosophy
		Human Freedom
		Mind-Body Dualism
		Self-Reflexivity
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter Lombard
		Biblical Commentaries
		The Systematization of Theology
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter of Abano
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter of Ailly
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter of Auvergne
		Biography
		Works
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter of Candia
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter of Maricourt
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter of Spain
		Life and Works
		The Tractatus
		The Syncategoremata
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Peter of Trabibus
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Petrarch
		Biography
		Philosophical Program
		Structuring History
		Political Visions
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Philip the Chancellor
		Biography
		Thought
		Transcendentals
		The Good of Nature
		Moral Goodness
		Theological Virtues
		Cardinal Virtues
		The Good of Grace
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Philoponus, Arabic
		Sources
		Life
		Works
		Thought and Influence
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Philosophical Psychology, Byzantine
		Byzantine Psychology
		Writings
		Ancient and Patristic Sources
		The Relation of Body and Soul
		Immortality of the Soul
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Philosophical Psychology, Jewish Tradition
		Saadia Gaon (882-942)
		Isaac Israeli (c. 855-955)
		Moses Maimonides (1138-1204)
		Levi b. Gershom, Gersonides (1288-1344)
		Hasdai Crescas (c. 1340-1410/1411)
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Texts and Translations
			Secondary Sources
	Philosophical Theology, Byzantine
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Philosophical Theology, Jewish
		Divine Predication
		Creation
		Divine Providence
		Theodicy
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Philosophy, Arabic
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Philosophy, Jewish
		Problematics
		Canons
		Schools
		Critics
		Themes
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Photios of Constantinople
		Biography
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Pierre Ceffons
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Plato, Arabic
		Introduction
		Arabic Vitae of Plato
		Arabic Bibliographies of Plato´s Oeuvre
		Translations, Summaries, and Commentaries
		Elements of Arabic Platonism
		Gnomologies and Doxographies
		Pseudepigrapha
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Platonism
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Platonism, Renaissance
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Plethon, George Gemistos
		Life
		Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Plotinus, Arabic
		The Enneads and Their Arabic Translation
		From the Arabic Plotinus to the Theology of Aristotle
		Doctrine
		The Theology of Aristotle and Arabic Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Editions and Translations of the Arabic Plotinus
			Editions and Translations of Other Relevant Texts
			Secondary Sources
	Political Aristotelianism
		Reception
		Development
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Political Philosophy
		Sources
			Philosophical Texts
				Plato and Neoplatonism
				Stoicism and Cicero
				Aristotle
			The Bible and Its Interpreters
				Politically Central Themes
				The Church Fathers
				Later Exegetes
			Legal Sources
				Roman Law
				Feudal Law
				Church Law
		Contexts
			Imperial Disintegration (410-732)
			New Europe (732-1077)
			Reformation and Renaissance (1077-1215)
			Enlightenment (1215-1302)
			Power and Poverty, Real and Verbal (1302-1453)
		Genres
			Comprehensive Treatises
			Mirrors for Princes
			Commentaries on Aristotle
			Sentence Commentaries and Other Theological Treatises
			Disputed and Quodlibetal Questions
		Topics
			The Nature of Politics
			Natural Norms
			Justice
			Peace
			Common Good
			Property and Poverty
			Coercion
			Regimes
				Monarchy: Papal, Imperial, Royal
				Republicanism
				The Mixed Constitution
				The Variability of Legitimate Regimes
				Resistance
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Political Philosophy, Arabic
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Political Philosophy, Byzantine
		The Empire
		The Emperor
		The Political Practices
		The Community of Christian States
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Porphyry, Arabic
		Biobibliographical Information in the Arabic Sources
			Porphyry´s Life and Philosophical Affiliation
			Works
		Porphyry´s Works in Arabic
			Extant or Attested Works
				Works on Aristotle
					Isagoge
					Commentary on the Physics
					Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics
				Other Works
					Two Books to Anebo
					Accounts of the Philosophers
				Dubia seu spuria
			Hypotheses About Porphyry´s Works Mentioned in the Bibliographical Sources
				Introduction to the Categorical Syllogisms
				On Intellect and the Intelligible
				Refutation Against Longinus (?) On the Intellect and the Intelligible
				Book of the Elements
			Hypotheses About Works Other Than Those Mentioned in the Bibliographical Sources
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Editions of the Arabic Isagoge
			Bio-Bibliographies
			Other Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Posterior Analytics, Commentaries on Aristotle´s
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Poverty
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Presocratics in the Arab World
		Biographical Information
		Doctrine
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Translations
			Secondary Sources
	Prochoros Kydones
		Life
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Proclus, Arabic
		Biographical and Bibliographical Information
		Doctrinal Development
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Editions of Arabic Translations of Proclus´ Works
			Editions of Works by Arabic Authors Using No Longer Extant Translations of Proclean Works
			Primary Sources Containing Information on Proclus´ Life, Works, and Doctrines in Arabic
			Secondary Sources
	Proofs of the Existence of God
		Introduction
		Goodness and Being
		Creation and Causation
		Order and Finality
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
		Identity
		Doctrine
		Influence
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ptolemy of Lucca
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
Q
	Quantification
		Syntactical Rules
		Semantic Rules
		Further Developments
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Latin
			English
			Secondary Sources
	Qusa ibn Luqā
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Biographers
			Secondary Sources
	Qub al-Dīn al-Shīrāzī
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
R
	Radulphus Brito
		Lemma
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ralph Strode
		Biographical Information
		Doctrines
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Ramon Llull
		Biographical Information
		Llull´s Art: Development and Function
		Superrealism, Rationalism, and Evangelism
		Bibliography
			Other Primary Works
			Secondary Works
	al-Rāzī, Fakhr al-Dīn
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Realism
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Secondary Sources
	Reason of State
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Remigio dei Girolami
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
			Web Site
	Richard Billingham
		Life
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Richard Brinkley
		Life, Works, and Philosophical Orientation
		The Summa logicae
		Logic and Metaphysics in the Summa logicae
		Universals
		Signification and Supposition
		Propositions and Truth
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Edited Sections of Brinkley´s Works
			Theological Works
			Logical Works
			Secondary Sources
	Richard Fishacre
		Biographical Information
		Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Latin
			Secondary Sources
	Richard Fitzralph
		Fitzralph´s Sentence Commentary
		De pauperie salvatoris
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Richard Kilvington
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Richard of Campsall
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Edited Works
			Secondary Sources
	Richard of Middleton
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Richard of St. Victor
		Exegetical and Spiritual Writings
		Theological Speculation
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Richard Rufus of Cornwall
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Edited Works of Richard Rufus of Cornwall
			Unedited or Incompletely Edited Works of Richard Rufus of Cornwall
			Doubtful Works of Richard Rufus of Cornwall
			Secondary Sources
	Richard Swineshead
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Robert Greystones
		Life
		Philosophy
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Robert Grosseteste
		Life and Works
		Thought
			Metaphysics and Physics of Light
			Theory of Science and Optics
			Theological Issues
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources (Latin Editions)
			Secondary Sources
			Web Sites
	Robert Holcot
		Writings, Texts, and Manuscripts
		Faith and Reason
		Covenantal Theology
		Influence
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Robert Kilwardby
		Life
		Works
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Robert of Halifax
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Roger Bacon
		Biographical Information
		His Philosophy
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Roger Marston
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Roger Roseth
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Roman Empire
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Roscelin of Compiègne
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
S
	Sa`īd ibn Dādhurmuz
		Theological and Philosophical Teachings
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Saadia Gaon
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Sarakhsī, Amad ibn al-ayyib
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Schools in the Twelfth Century
		The Cathedral Schools: The Case of Chartres
		Collegial or Canonical Schools: Saint Victor
		Logico-Theological Schools
		A Doctrinal Perspective on the Chartres Versus Paris Distinction
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Sense Perception, Theories of
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Sergius of Reshʿaynā
		Biography
		Works
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Shahrastānī, Muammad ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Main Biographical Notices on al-Shahrastānī
			Secondary Sources
	al-Shahrazurī, Muammad ibn Mamud Shams al-Dīn
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Siger of Brabant
		Introduction
		The Life and Works
			First Period: Before 1270
			Second Period: 1270-1275
			Third Period: After 1275
		Thought
			Before 1270: The Problem of the Unity of the Intellect
			From 1270 to 1275: The Eternity of the World Between Faith and Philosophy
			After 1275: Return to Orthodoxy?
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Simon of Faversham
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Skepticism
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Sophisms
		The Structure and Uses of Sophisms
		Magister Abstractionum
		Natural Philosophy ``secundum imaginationem´´
		Logical Sophisms in the Fourteenth Century
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Sophonias
		Biography
		Thought
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Species: Sensible and Intelligible
		Cross-References
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Stephen Langton
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Substance, Accident, and Modes
		Aristotle´s Ontological Square
		Some Problems with the Ontological Square
		Aristotle Versus the Theology of the Eucharist
		The Problem of the Distinction of Accidents and the Emergence of Modes
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	al-Suhrawardī, Shihāb al-Dīn Yayā al-Maqtul
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Supposition Theory
		Introduction
		Early Developments: Twelfth Century
		The Age of Terminism: Thirteenth Century
		Later Developments: Fourteenth Century and Beyond
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Latin
			English
			Secondary Sources
	Syllogism, Theories of
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Syncategoremata
		Historical Development of the Concept
		Systematic Development of the Concept
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
T
	al-Tawīdī, Abu ayyān
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Terms, Properties of
		Introduction
		Problems
		History
		The Early Period
		Peter of Spain (Thirteenth Century)
		William of Sherwood (1200/1210-1266/1272)
		Roger Bacon (c. 1214-1292/1294)
		William of Ockham (c. 1285-1348)
		John Buridan (c. 1292-1362)
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Thābit ibn Qurra
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Themistius, Arabic
		Themistius´ Paraphrases Extant in Greek
		Spurious Works
		Syriac, Arabic, and Hebrew Translations of Themistius´ Paraphrases
			Prior Analytics
			Posterior Analytics
			Topics
			Categories
			Physics
			On the Soul
		Book Lambda of the Metaphysics
			On the Heavens
			On Generation and Corruption
			Epitome by Themistius of Aristotle´s Zoological Works and the Paraphrase of Aristotle´s De sensu et sensato
			Poetics
			Ethics
		Other Works
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Theodore Metochites
		Life
		Works
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Theodore Prodromos
		Biography
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Theology Versus Philosophy in the Arab World
		Islamic Philosophical Theology
		Islamic Religious Philosophy
		Philosophers Against Theologians
		Theologians Against Philosophers
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Theophrastus, Arabic
		Biographical Information
		Thought
			Logic
			Nature and Natural Phenomena
			God
			Soul
			Intellect
			Morals
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Translations
			Secondary Sources
	Thierry of Chartres
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
	Thomas Aquinas
		Biography
		Metaphysics and Natural Philosophy
		Epistemology
		Natural Theology: The Five Ways
		Semiotics: Theological Discourse
		Philosophical Psychology
		Ethics and Natural Law
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Thomas Aquinas, Political Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Thomas Bradwardine
		Mathematics and Physics
			De Causa Dei
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Thomas Ebendorfer of Hasselbach
		Life
		Works and Thought
		Commentary on the Sentences
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Thomas of Sutton
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Thomas of Vio (Cajetan)
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Thomas Wylton
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Thomism
		Corpus of the Article
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Thomism, Byzantine
		Historical and Literary Facts
			From the Beginning of the Byzantines´ Acquaintance with Aquinas (c. 1300) Up to Demetrios Kydones´ Translation (1354) of the S...
			From 1354 to the end of the Fourteenth Century
			From the Third to the Sixth Decade of the Fifteenth Century
		Influence on Speculative Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Time
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Toleration
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Translations from Greek into Arabic
		The Stages of the Reception of Greek Philosophical Works
			Plato (Tim., Symp., Phaed., Resp.)
			Aristotle (An. Pr., Soph. el., Phys., De caelo, Meteor., De gen. an., De part. an., Parva nat., Metaph., Paraphrasis of the De...
			Aetius
			Nicomachus of Gerasa
			Alexander of Aphrodisias
			Hippolytus of Rome
			Plotinus
			Proclus
			John Philoponus
			Olympiodorus
			Plato (Tim., Leges, Resp. [?], Soph. [?])
			Aristotle (Cat., De int., An. pr., An. po., Top., Phys., De caelo, Meteor., De gen. corr., De an., Metaph., Eth. Nic.)
			Theophrastus
			Tabula Cebetis
			Nicolaus Damascenus
			Galen (Philosophical Works)
			Alexander of Aphrodisias
			Porphyry
			Iamblichus (?)
			Themistius
			Proclus
			John Philoponus
			Olympiodorus
			The Last Stream
			Plato
			Aristotle (An. po., Soph. el., Topics, Rhetoric, Poetics, De caelo, De gen. et corr., De sensu et sensato, Book Lambda of the ...
			Theophrastus
			Nicolaus Damascenus
			Alexander of Aphrodisias
			Themistius
			Proclus
			Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
			Simplicius
			Olympiodorus
		The Works Translated: An Overview
		Cross-References
		Appendix: The Kitāb al-Fihrist
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Translations from Greek into Syriac
		First Period: The So-Called Popular Philosophy
		Second Period
		Third Period
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Trinitarian Logic
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Trinity
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Truth, Theories of
		Anselm of Canterbury
		Peter Abelard
		Thomas Aquinas
		Theories of Truth Based on the Notion of Supposition
		Semantic Theories of Truth in the Fourteenth Century: Insolubilia
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Edited Works in Latin
			Translations
			Secondary Sources
	al-usī, Naīr al-Dīn
		al-usī, Naīr al-Dīn (us 1201- Baghdad 1274)
		A Philosopher and a Theologian
		A Mathematician and an Astronomer
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Works
			Secondary Sources
	Tyranny
		References
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
U
	Ulrich of Strasbourg
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Universals
		Preliminaries
		Boethius
		Realism, Vocalism, and ``Nominalism´´
		Ibn Sīnā
		Realism in the Scholastic Period
		Moderate Realism and Individuation
		Ockham
		Realism Resurgent
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Universities and Philosophy
		The Faculty of Arts
		The Basic Texts
		The Teaching Program
		Commentary, Exercises, and Disputations
		Colleges and Bursae
		The Wegestreit
		Channels of Exchange
		Controversies
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
V
	Virtue and Vice
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Vital du Four
		Life
		Works
		Doctrine
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
W
	Walter Burley
		Biographical Information
		Thought
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Walter Chatton
		Ontology
		Philosophy of Mind and Cognitive Psychology
		Will and Moral Philosophy
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Walter of Bruges
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
	War (Just War, Holy War)
		Early Developments
		The ``Classic´´ Formulation
		Judaism and Islam
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
	Will
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Will, Weakness of
		Historical and Systematic Development of the Concept
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	William Arnaud
		Life and Work
		The Course on Aristotle´s Logic
		The Commentary on Peter of Spain´s Tractatus
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	William Crathorn
		Biography
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	William Heytesbury
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	William of Alnwick
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	William of Auvergne
		Biographical Information
		Philosophy
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	William of Auxerre
		William of Auxerre
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	William of Champeaux
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	William of Ockham
		Works
		Philosophy and Theology
		Logic
		Ockham´s Theory of Supposition
		Ockham´s Portrait of the Categories
		The Realities of Natural Philosophy
		Ockham´s Razor
		Metaphysics and Theology as a Science
		The Absolute and Ordained Power of God
		Ockham´s Moral Theory
		Political Writings
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			English Translations
			Secondary Sources
	William of Sherwood
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	William of Ware
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
	Wyclif in the Early Fifteenth Century, Reception of
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Secondary Sources
Y
	Yayā ibn ʿAdī
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
			Primary Sources
			Biographers
			Secondary Sources