Designing Complex Products with Systems Engineering Processes and Techniques

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface for the First Edition
Preface for This Second Edition
Website Materials
Acknowledgments
Author
Part I: Systems Engineering Concepts, Issues, and Methods in Product Design
	Chapter 1: Introduction to Products, Processes, and Product Development
		Introduction and Objectives
		Understanding Products, Customers, Processes, and Systems
			What Is a Product?
			Who Is the Customer?
			What Are Customer Needs?
			What Is a Process?
		Designing a Complex Product
			Definition of a System
			Systems, Subsystems, and Components
			Systems Work with Other Systems
			Product Families and Component Sharing
			Product Development
				Processes in Product Development
				Flow Diagram of Product Development
				Managing the Complex Product
			Life Cycle Stages of a Product
				Program Phases, Reviews, and Milestones
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 2: Systems Engineering and Other Disciplines in Product Design
		Introduction
		Systems Engineering Fundamentals
			What Is Systems Engineering?
			Managing a Complex Product
		Systems Engineering Processes in Product Development
			Systems Engineering Process
			Five Loops in the Systems Engineering Process
			Major Tasks in the Systems Engineering Process
				Requirements Analysis
				Functional Analysis and Allocation
				Design Synthesis
				Verification
				Validation
				Verification Versus Validation
			Subsystems and Components Development
			Example of Cascading a Requirement from the Product Level to a Component Level
			Iterative Nature of the Loops within the Systems Engineering Process
			Incremental and Iterative Development Approach
		Systems Engineering “V” Model
		NASA Description of the Systems Engineering Process
		Managing the Systems Engineering Process
			Relationship between Systems Engineering and Program Management
		Role of Systems Engineers
			Integrating Engineering Specialties into the Systems Engineering Process
		Role of Computer-Assisted Technologies in Product Design
			CAD and CAE
		Model-Based Systems Engineering
		Importance of Systems Engineering
		Advantages and Disadvantages of the Systems Engineering Process
		Some Challenges in Complex Product Development
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 3: Decision-Making and Risks in Product Programs
		Introduction
		Problem-Solving Approaches
		Decision-Making
			Alternatives, Outcomes, Payoffs, and Risks
			Maximum Expected Value Principle
			Other Principles
		Techniques Used in Decision-Making
			Analytical Hierarchical Method
			Weighted Total Score for Concept Selection
		Informational Needs in Decision-Making
		Decision-Making in Product Design
			Key Decisions in Product Life Cycle
			Trade-Offs during Design Stages
		Risks in Product Development and Product Uses
			Definition of Risk and Types of Risks in Product Development
			Types of Risks during Product Uses
		Risk Analysis
			Risk Matrix
			Risk Priority Number and Nomographs
			Problems in Risk Measurements
		Importance of Early Decisions during Product Development
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 4: Product Attributes, Requirements, and Allocation of Functions
		Introduction
		Attributes and Requirements
			What Is an Attribute?
			Importance of Attributes
			What Is a Requirement?
			Attribute Requirements
			Why “Specify” Requirements?
			How Are Requirements Developed?
			Characteristics of a Good Requirement
		Types of Requirements
			Customer Requirements
			Functional Requirements
			Performance Requirements
			Interface Requirements
			Reliability Requirements
			Environmental Requirements
			Human Factors Requirements
			Safety Requirements
			Security Requirements
			Designed-to-Conform versus Manufactured-to-Conform Requirements
			Where Are Requirements Stored?
		Requirements Allocation and Analysis
			Requirements Allocation
			Requirements Analysis
		Attributes Development
			Cascading Attribute Requirements to Lower Levels
			Dividing the Product into Manageable Levels
		Relating Attribute Structure to Systems
			An Example: Attributes, System Decomposition, and Requirements for Vehicle Exterior Lighting System
				Attributes
				Systems and Subsystems
				Relationship between System Components and Requirements
				Requirements of Exterior Lighting System
				Verification Tests
			An Example: Cascading of Vehicle Level Sub-attribute Requirements into Powertrain Subsystem Requirements
			An Example: Attributes, Requirements, and Trade-Offs in Suspension Systems of a Sports Car
				Attributes
				Requirements
				Trade-Offs
		Factors Affecting Requirements
		Role of Standards in Setting Requirements
			Types of Standards
			Advantages of Standards
			Disadvantages of Standards
			Problems with Standards
			Standards Development Process
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 5: Understanding and Managing Interfaces
		Introduction
		Interface Definition, Types, and Requirements
			What Is an Interface?
			Types of Interfaces
			Interface Requirements
		Visualizing Interfaces
			Interface Diagram
			Interface Matrix and N-Squared Diagram
		Examples of Interface Diagrams and Interface Matrices
			Laptop Computer Interfaces
			Automotive Fuel System Interfaces
		Clustering and Sequencing of Matrix Data
		Teamwork in Interface Management
		Establishment of Interface Control
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 6: Detailed Engineering Design during Product Development
		Introduction
		Engineering Design
		Six Product Examples
		Illustration of Wind Turbine Design Using Systems Engineering “V” Model
			Left Side of the “V”—Design and Engineering
			Right Side of the “V”—Verification, Manufacturing, and Assembly
			Right Side of the Diagram—Operation and Disposal
		Activities in Engineering Design
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 7: Product Evaluation, Verification, and Validation
		Objectives and Introduction
		Why Evaluate, Verify, and Validate?
			Testing, Verification, and Validation
			Distinctions between Product Verification and Product Validation
		Overview on Evaluation Issues
			Types of Evaluations
		Evaluation Methods: An Overview
		Methods of Data Collection and Analysis
			Observation Methods
			Communication Methods
			Experimentation Methods
		Objective Measures and Data Analysis Methods
		Subjective Methods and Data Analysis
			Rating on a Scale
			Analysis of 10-Point Ratings Data
			Paired Comparison-Based Methods
		Evaluations during Product Development
			Verification Plan and Tests
			Validation Plan and Tests
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 8: Program Planning and Management
		Introduction
		Program versus Project Management
			Program Management Functions
			Development of Detailed Project Plans
			Project Management
			Steps in Project Planning
		Tools Used in Project Planning
			Gantt Chart
			Critical Path Method
			Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique
			Work Breakdown Structure
			Project Management Software
			Other Tools
		Systems Engineering Management Plan
			Contents of SEMP
			Checklist for Critical Information
			Role of Systems Engineers
			Value of Systems Engineering Management Plan
		Complexity in Program Management
			Time Management
			Cost Management
			Challenges in Program Management
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 9: Costs and Benefits Considerations and Models
		Introduction
		Types of Costs
			Nonrecurring and Recurring Costs
				Nonrecurring Costs
				Recurring Costs
			Revenues Buildup over Time as the Product Is Sold
			Make versus Buy Decisions
			Fixed versus Variable Costs
			Quality Costs
			Manufacturing Costs
			Safety Costs
			Product Termination Costs
			Total Life Cycle Costs
		Effect of Time on Costs
		Benefits Estimation
		Project Financial Plan
			An Example: Automotive Product Program Cash Flow
			Effect of Interest and/or Inflation
		Product Pricing Approaches
			Traditional Costs-Plus Approach
			Market Price-Minus Profit Approach
			Software Applications
			Trade-Offs and Risks
		Concluding Remarks
		References
Part II: Quality, Human Factors, Safety, and Sustainability Approaches
	Chapter 10: Quality Management and Six-Sigma Initiatives
		Introduction
		Definition of Quality
		Key Concepts in Quality Management
			Quality Gurus and Their Findings
		Product Quality Measurements
		Customer Satisfaction and the Kano Model of Quality
		Quality Initiatives
			Total Quality Management
		ISO 9000
			Malcolm Baldridge Award Criteria
			Six-Sigma Methodologies
		Overview of Tools Used in Quality Management
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 11: Human Factors Engineering in Product Design
		Introduction
		Human Factors Engineering
			What Is It?
			Human Factors Engineering Approach
			Human Factors Research Studies
		Human Factors Engineer’s Responsibilities in Designing Complex Products
		Importance of Human Factors Engineering
			Characteristics of Ergonomically Designed Products
			Why Apply Human Factors Engineering?
			Human Factors Engineering Is Not Commonsense
		A Brief Overview of Human Characteristics and Capabilities
			Physical Capabilities
			Information Processing Capabilities
			Other Factors Affecting Human Capabilities
			Percentile Values
		Human Errors
			Definition of an Error
			Types of Human Errors
		Human Interface
		User Performance Measurements
			Types and Categories of User Performance Measures
			Characteristics of Effective Performance Measures
		Human Factors Methods: An Overview
		Considerations in the Applications of Human Factors Guidelines
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 12: Safety Engineering in Product Design
		Introduction
		Background: Safety Engineering
			Definition of Safety Engineering
			Safety Problems
			Importance and Need of Safety Engineering
			3Es of Safety Engineering and Countermeasures
			Methods Used in Safety Engineering
			Historic Background
		Definition of an Accident
		Accident Causation Theories
		Safety Performance Measures
			Why Measure Safety Performance?
			Currently Used Accident Measures
			Accident-Based Incident Rates
			Advantages and Disadvantages of Current Accident-Based Measures
			Non-accident Measures
		Safety Analysis Methodologies
			Two Possibilities: Accident versus Hazard
			Accident Analysis Methods
			Hazard Analysis Methods
		Product Safety and Liability
			Terms and Principles Used in Product Litigations
			Product Defects
			Warnings
		Safety Costs
		Security Considerations in Product Design
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 13: Design for Sustainability
		Introduction
			What Is Sustainability?
			What Is a Sustainable Product?
			Life Cycle Consideration
		Tools/Methods Used for Sustainability Analyses
			Design for Environment
			Design for Disassembly
				Goal of DFD
		DFD and DFA Guidelines
			Use of Fasteners
		Recycling and Material Recovery
			Selection and Use of Materials
			Product Design Guidelines for Recycling
			Design for Active Disassembly
		Concluding Remarks
		References
Part III: Tools Used in Product Development, Quality, Human Factors, and Safety Engineering
	Chapter 14: Methods and Toolbox
		Introduction
		Overview of Methods
		Classification of Methods
			Observation Methods
			Communication Methods
			Experimentation Methods
			Data Presentation Methods
		Methods in Product Development, Quality, Human Factors, Safety, and Program Management
		Integration of Tools in Applications
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 15: Product Development Tools
		Introduction
		Benchmarking and Breakthrough
			Benchmarking
			Breakthrough
			Differences between Benchmarking and Breakthrough
		Pugh Diagram
			An Example of Pugh Diagram Application
		Quality Function Deployment
			An Example of the Quality Function Deployment Chart
			Cascading Quality Function Deployments
			Advantages and Disadvantages of Quality Function Deployment
		Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
			An Example of a Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
			Failure Modes and Effects and Criticality Analysis
		Other Product Development Tools
			Business Plan
			Program Status Chart
			Standards
		Model-Based Systems Engineering
			Computer-Aided Design Tools
			Prototyping and Simulation
			Physical Mock-Ups
			Technology Assessment Tools
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 16: Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
		Introduction
		Design, Functioning, Manufacturing, and Assembly
		Principles of DFMA
		Materials, Manufacturing and Assembly Considerations: An Example of IC Engine Piston
		Manufacturing and Assembly Considerations
		Manufacturing and Assmbly Costs
		Assembly Engineer’s Recommendations to Component Designers for Assembly Cost Reductions
		Methods to Estimate Assembly Time
		Methods-Time Measurement
		Boothroyd et al. Assembly Evaluation Methods
			Boothroyd et al. Manual Assembly Evaluation Method
			Other Boothroyd et al. Assembly Evaluation Methods
		An Example of Applications of MTM-1 vs. Boothroyd’s Manual Assembly Time Estimating Methods
			Similarities between MTM-1 and Boothroyd et al. Manual Assembly Methods
			Dissimilarities between MTM-1 and Boothroyd et al. Methods
		Boothroyd et al. Methods for Estimating Assembly Times for High-Speed Automatic Assembly and Robotic Assembly
			High-Speed Automatic Assembly
			Robotic Assembly
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 17: Traditional and New Quality Tools
		Introduction
		Traditional Quality Tools
			Pareto Chart
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: Pareto Chart of Customer Complaints
			Cause-and-Effect Diagram
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: C-E Diagram for Misaimed Headlamps
				Cause-and-Effect Process Diagram
			Check Sheet
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: Checklist for Door Trim Defects
				Example: Check Sheet for Defects in Painted Car Body
			Histogram
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: Histogram of Resistance of an Electrical Component
			Scatter Diagram
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: Scatterplot of Sitting Height versus Standing Height of 30 Human Operators
			Stratification
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: Stratification of Anthropometric Data by Gender
			Control Charts
				Purpose
				Description
			Some Examples of Control Charts
				Variables Control Charts
				Attributes Control Charts
		New Quality Tools
			Relations Diagram
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: Understanding Causation of Headlamp Misaim
			Affinity Diagram
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: Grouping Causes of Headlamp Misaim
			Systematic Diagram
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: Alternatives to Reduce Product Development Time
			Matrix Diagram
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: Relationship between Vehicle Parameters and Vehicle Performance
			Matrix Data Analysis
				Purpose
				Description
				Examples of Matrix Data Analysis
			Process Decision Program Chart
				Purpose
				Description
				Example: PDPC for Reducing Problems in a Product Development Process
			Arrow Diagrams
				Purpose
				Description
				Examples
		Experiment Design
			An Example: Experiment to Select a Display with the Highest Luminance
			Multivariate Experiment Designs
			Taguchi’s Three-Step Product Design Approach
			Taguchi’s Product Robustness and Quadratic Costs
			Taguchi Experiments
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 18: Human Factors Engineering Tools
		Introduction
		Databases on Human Characteristics and Capabilities
		Anthropometric and Biomechanical Human Models
		Human Factors Checklists and Scorecards
			Checklist
				An Example: A Checklist for Evaluation of an Automotive Control
				Scorecard
				An Example: Ergonomic Scorecard for Automotive Interior Evaluation
		Task Analysis
			An Example: Task Analysis for Opening a Liftgate and Removing a Jack
		Human Performance Evaluation Models
		Laboratory, Simulator, and Field Studies
		Human Performance Measurement Methods
			Range of Human Performance Measures
			Types and Categories of Human Performance Measures
			Examples of Behavioral Human Performance Measures
			Methods to Measure Human Operator Workload
				Operator Performance Measurements
				Physiological Measurements
				Subjective Assessments
					National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index
					Subjective Workload Assessment Technique
					Workload Profile
				Secondary Task Performance Measurement
		Product Psychophysics
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 19: Safety Engineering Tools
		Introduction
		Hazard Identification and Risk Reduction Tools
			Hazard Analysis
			General Hazard Analysis
			Detailed Hazard Analysis
			Methods Safety Analysis
			Checklists to Uncover Hazards
			Risk Analysis
		Systems Safety Analysis Tools
			Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
			Fault Tree Analysis
				Purpose
				Description
					Application of Boolean Algebra
					AND Gate
					OR Gate
					An Example: Two-Engine Aircraft
					Fault Tree Development Rules
					Rule 1: Fault Tree Development Rule
					Rule 2: OR-Gate Event Rules
					Rule 3: AND-Gate Event Rule
					Fault Tree Example: Printer Fails to Print
					Advantages of Fault Tree Analysis
		Accident Data Analysis Tools
			Purpose of Accident Data Collection
			Flow of Accident Data Collection
			Accident Data Reporting Thresholds
			Accident Investigations
			Accident Data Sources and Users
		Safety Performance Monitoring, Evaluation, and Control
			Interview and Observational Techniques for Non-Accident Measurement of Safety Performance
			Critical Incident Technique
			Behavioral Sampling
			Control Charts
			Before versus after Studies
			Cost–Benefit Analysis
		Reliability Analyses
			Definitions of Reliability and Maintainability
			Reliability of a Series System
			Reliability of a Parallel System
			Reliability of Hybrid Systems
			Designing for Reliability
			Approaches for Reliability Improvements
			A Reliability Engineer’s Tasks
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 20: Cost–Benefit Analysis
		Introduction
			Cost–Benefit Analysis: What Is It?
			Why Use Cost–Benefit Analysis?
			Steps Involved in Cost–Benefit Analysis
		Some Examples of Problems for Application of Cost–Benefit Analysis
		Cost–Benefit Analysis of Residential Solar Panels: An Example
			Problem
			Cost–Benefit Analysis and Calculations
				Installed Costs
				Operation and Maintenance Cost
				Insurance
				Present Value of Cost
				Avoided Electric Utility Cost
				SREC, Net Metering, and Tax Credit Revenue
				Net Present Value
				Conclusions of the Cost–Benefit Analyses
		Exercising Cost–Benefit Model for Sensitivity Analysis
		Risks and Uncertainties in Cost–Benefit Analysis
			Uncertainties
			Controversial Aspects
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 21: Life Cycle Analyses
		Introduction
		What Is Product Life Cycle?
		Life Cycle Analysis
			Objectives of LCA
			LCA Impact Categories
			Carbon Footprint
			Four Phases of Life Cycle Assessment
		Life Cycle Cost Analysis
			Objectives of LCCA
		Some Examples of LCA and LCCA Applications
			Examples of LCA
				Emissions from Automotive Products
			Examples of LCCA
				Cost–Benefit Analysis of Photovoltaic Solar Panels
				Levelized Cost of Technologies
		Concluding Remarks
		References
Part IV: Applications, Case Studies, and Integration
	Chapter 22: Applications of Systems Engineering Tools: A Case Study on an Automotive Powertrain System
		Introduction
		Automotive Powertrain Project
			Project Objectives
			Project Steps
		Systems, Subsystems, and Sub-Subsystems
			Engine Sub-Subsystem
			Transmission Sub-Subsystems
			Drivetrain Sub-Subsystems
			Fasteners
				Decomposition Tree for the Powertrain System
				Interfaces
					Attributes of the Powertrain System
						Fuel Economy
						Performance
						Costs
			Cascading Vehicle Attribute Requirements to Powertrain Requirements
			Trade-Offs in Powertrain Development
		Concluding Remarks
		Reference
	Chapter 23: Case Studies and Integration
		Introduction
		Case Study 1: Motorcycle Systems
			Objectives
			Project Description
			Motorcycle Attributes to Systems Relationships
		Case Study 2: Benchmarking and Evaluation of Steering Wheels
			Objectives
			Project Description
			Benchmarking Study
			Evaluation in a Driving Simulator
		Case Study 3: Pugh Analysis of an Automotive Concept
			Objective
				Problem: New Product Concept
			Analysis of the Problem
		Case Study 4: Cyclone Grinder Development
			Objective
			Project Description
			Customer Requirements for the Grinder
			Functional Requirements for the Grinder
			Systems and Components of the Grinder
			Grinder Development Project Schedule
			Key Concepts for Successful Cyclone Grinder Design
			Risk Management
			Key Observations
		Case Study 5: smart Car Design and Production
			Objectives
			Project Introduction
			Smart Car’s Customer Needs
			Benchmarking of the smart Car
			Key Product Design Development Issues
			Key Business and Supply Chain Issues
		Case Study 6: Problems during Boeing 777 Development
			Objective
			Project Description and Uncovered Problems
		Case Study 7: Boeing 787 Dreamliner Design and Production
			Objective
			Project and Product Description
			Production Issues
		Case Study 8: Flexible Assembly Line for Laptop Computers
			Objectives
			Background
			Assembly Line Configuration
		Case Study 9: Specifications for an Electric Car
			Objective
			Project Background
			Application of the Matrix Data Analysis
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 24: Case Studies in Cost–Benefit Analysis
		Introduction
		Case Study 1: Cost–Benefit Analysis of Automotive Product Development Programs
		Case Study 2: JEDI Model Applications for Comparison of Costs and Economic Benefits of Wind Turbine Power Plant with Natural Gas Power Plant
		Case Study 3: Evaluation of Five Electric Power Generation Alternatives
			Methodology
		Case Study 4: NHTSA/EPA Cost–Benefit Analysis: Increases in Vehicle Costs, Fuel Savings, and Avoided Pollution
			Increase in Vehicle Price vs. Fuel Savings
		Case Study 5: Manufacturing and Assembly Line: Robotic Assembly of an Automotive Differential Gear Carrier
			Baseline Manual Assembly
			Robotic Assembly Method
				Fixture
				Bolt Feeding
				Grippers
			Row and Column Codes for Components
		Assumptions Regarding Parts and Assembly Considerations
			Cost–Benefit Analysis
		Life Cycle Cost Analysis
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 25: Challenges and Future Issues in Systems Engineering
		Introduction
		Challenges in Systems Engineering
		Need for Tools in Complex Product Development
			Tools to Manage Multifunctional and Multiple Requirements
		Coordination of Global Design Teams
		Commonality
		Modularity
		CAD and CAE Integration
		Ergonomic Needs in Designing Products
		Future Technological Challenges
		Bright Future for Systems Engineers
			Characteristics of a Good Systems Engineer
		Teaching Systems Engineering
			Objectives of the Projects
			Project Work
			Brief Descriptions of the Projects
		Concluding Remarks
		References
Appendix 1: Product Development Case Studies
	Objectives
	Method
		Part I
		Part II
Appendix 2: Benchmarking, Quality Function Deployment, and Design Specifications
	Objectives
	Procedure
Appendix 3: Vehicle Systems Analyses: Requirements, Interfaces, Trade-Offs, and Verification
	Objectives
	Method
Appendix 4: Business Plan and Systems Engineering Management Plan for the Proposed Vehicle
	Objectives
	Contents of the Report
Appendix 5: Conceptual Design of the Proposed Vehicle
	Objectives
	Procedure
Appendix 6: Vehicle Assembly Process Plan
	Objectives
	Contents of the Report
Appendix 7: Term Project: Final Report
	Objectives
	Contents of the Report
Appendix 8: Calculations of Centerline and Control Limits for Control Charts
	Notations Common to Both Variables and Attributes Control Charts
	Notations for Variables Control Charts
	Process Capability Measurements
	Notations for Attributes Control Charts
	3-Sigma Control Upper and Lower Limits and Centerlines
		X-Bar and R Charts
		X-Bar and S Charts
		X and R M Charts
	P Chart (For Constant Subgroup Size of n)
	P Chart (For Variable Subgroup Size of nj)
	NP Chart
	U Chart (For Subgroup Size of Nj)
	C Chart (For Constant Subgroup Size of N)
	References
Index