Vehicle Computing: From Traditional Transportation to Computing on Wheels

Contents
Introduction to Vehicle Computing
	Traditional Automotive: Change Is Happening Now
		Definition of Vehicle Computing
		Illustrative Examples of Vehicle Computing
			Infrastructure Health Management
			In-Vehicle Meeting
			In-Vehicle Delivery
			In-Vehicle Augmented Reality
			In-Vehicle Entertainment
	Vehicles as Mobile Computation Platforms
	Vehicles as Mobile Communication Platforms
		Evolution of Mobile Communication: LTE/4G/5G/6G
		Dedicated Short-Range Communication
		Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything
	Vehicles as Mobile Sensing and Data Storage Platforms
		Mobile Sensing
		Mobile Storage
	Vehicles as Mobile Energy Management Platforms
		Energy Consumption
		Energy Storage
		Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration
	Novel Business Model in Vehicle Computing
		A New Ecosystem for Vehicle Computing
		Illustrative Example: Electric Vehicles and Slow Charging
	Technical Challenges and Opportunities
		Challenges in Vehicular Computation
		Challenges in Vehicular Communication
		Challenges in Optimizing Energy Use and V2G Integration
		Challenges in Sensor Data Integration and Calibration
		Challenges in Advancing Data Storage Solutions
		Exploiting Opportunities in Vehicle Computing
	Summary
	References
Mobile Computation in Connected Vehicles
	Vehicle Software and Applications
		The Evolution of Automotive Software and Computing Systems
		Automotive Software
		Automotive Computing Systems
		Mainstream Vehicle Intelligent Applications
			Object Detection
			Lane Detection
			Localization and Mapping
			Prediction and Planning
			Vehicle Control
			Collision Avoidance
			Scene Adaptation
	Software-Defined Vehicles and Application Requirements
		Software-Defined Vehicles: A Forthcoming Evolution
			The Essence of SDVs
			The Significance of SDVs
			Solutions to Realize SDVs
		Application Landscape
		Application Requirements
	Reference Architecture of Vehicle Computing Systems
		Modular-Based Design
		End-to-End-Based Design
	Computation Hardware
	Real-Time Operating Systems
	Middleware Systems
		ROS
			Core Components in ROS
			ROS1 and ROS2
		Autoware Foundation
	Challenges and Discussions
		Implementing Artificial Intelligence
			Standardization of Safety Issues
			Infeasibility of Scalable Training
			Infeasibility of Complete Testing
		Vehicle Operating System Challenges and Advances
		Hardware Cost
		Experiment Platforms
	Summary
	References
Vehicular Communication and Networking Technologies
	Mainstream Vehicular Communication Mechanisms
		Evolution from LTE to 6G
		DSRC: Dedicated Short-Range Communications
		C-V2X: Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything
	The Emergence of C-V2X in Vehicle Computing
		Reliability of C-V2X
		Bandwidth of C-V2X
		Scalability of C-V2X
		The Evolutionary Trajectory of C-V2X
		Development of C-V2X Test Environments
	Communication Architectures
		Centralized Architecture
		Decentralized Architecture
		Publish/Subscribe Architecture
		Broadcast Architecture
		Architecture Comparisons and Discussions
			Advantages and Challenges of Centralized Architecture
			Advantages and Challenges of Decentralized Architecture
			Advantages and Challenges of Publish/Subscribe Architecture
		Advantages and Challenges of Broadcast Architecture
		EdgeArC: Edge-Based Architecture for Vehicle Computing
	Vehicle-to-Everything in Vehicle Computing
		Infrastructure-to-Vehicle (I2V)
		Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I)
		V2V
	Communication Security in Vehicle Computing
	Case Studies and Their Implementations
		C-V2X Enabled Collaborative Lane Keeping
			Framework Overview
			Framework Implementation
		SafeCross: To Turn or Not to Turn at Intersections
			Framework Overview
			Framework Implementation
	Challenges and Discussions
		Cyberattack Protection
		Leveraging Smart Infrastructure for Enhanced Vehicle Operations
		Navigating Interactions with Human Drivers
	Summary
	References
Sensing and Data Acquisition Techniques
	Automotive Sensors
		Cameras
		Radar
		LiDAR
		Ultrasonic Sensor
		GPS/GNSS/IMU
	Data Source
		Data Characteristics
		Dataset and Benchmark
		Data Labeling
	Failure Detection and Diagnostics
		Understanding Sensor Failure
		Addressing Sensor Reliability
		Data Accuracy in Sensor Output
		Algorithmic Reliability in Adverse Conditions
	Data Storage in Vehicles
		The Surge of Data in Modern Vehicles
		Data Compression
		Vehicle Data Logging Systems
		Computational Vehicle Storage Systems
	Vehicle Data Access Control
		Data Access Patterns in Vehicles
			Real-Time Data Access Patterns
			Historical Data Access Patterns
		Data Access Control
			Vehicle Systems and Platforms
			Access Control for Vehicles
		Access Control Models
	Challenges and Discussions
		Multi-Sensor Data Synchronization
		Deal with Normal-Abnormal Vehicle Data
			Adverse Weather
			Emergency Maneuvers
			Work Zones
		Automotive Storage Systems
			Synchronization
			Privacy
			Security
			Data Movement
			Reliability and Redundancy in Data Sharing
		Securing Vehicle Sensing Data
	Summary
	References
Energy Management, Efficiency, and Delivery
	Electric Vehicles (EVs)
		Possible Battery Faults
		EV Battery Failure Prediction
			Voltage-Based Prediction in Battery Systems
			Temperature-Based Prediction in Battery Systems
			State of Charge (SOC)-Based Estimation in Battery Systems
			Limitations of Current Failure Prediction
	Heavy-Duty Trucks
		Fuel Rate Modeling
			Significance of Fuel Rate Modeling
			Evolving Approaches
			Limitations of Current Models
		Fuel Rate Prediction
			Linear and Polynomial Regression Analysis
			Deep Learning Models
			AutoML-Based Regression
	Energy Consumption in Vehicle Computing Systems
	Energy-Efficient Designs and Strategies
		Energy-Efficient Accelerator Architectures
			GPU Acceleration
			DianNao Accelerators
			Google\'s Tensor Processing Units
			Neuromorphic Processor Architecture
		Hardware-Based Full-Stack Optimization
			FPGA Acceleration
			Energy-Efficient Inference Engine
			Co-Design Framework for Deep Neural Networks
	Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technologies
		Power Flow of V2G
			Unidirectional V2G
			Bidirectional V2G
		V2G Use Cases and Benefits
			Deliver Active Power Support to Grid
			Power Compensation
		V2G Optimization
			Optimization Methods
			Optimization Objectives
	Challenges and Discussions
		Hardware Optimization Versus Energy Consumption
		V2G Challenges
			Battery Lifespan Reduction due to V2G
			Implementation Costs
		Summary
	References
Programming Interfaces for Vehicle Computing
	Automotive Software Platforms
		AUTOSAR
		SOAFEE
		Baidu Apollo
		Autoware
		NVIDIA DRIVE
		BlackBerry IVY
		Robot Operating System (ROS)
	Vehicle Programming Interface (VPI) Design Philosophy
		Overview of Vehicle Programming Interfaces (VPIs)
		Hardware VPIs
		Data VPIs
		Computation VPIs
		Service VPIs
		Management VPIs
	Case Study: VPI Implementation
		Hardware: Zebra
		Software: OpenVDAP
		Case Study: Remote Control and Latency Evaluation
	Challenges and Discussions
	Summary
	References
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Teleoperation in Vehicle Computing
	The Evolution of Connected Vehicles
		The Role of Human Oversight
		The Distant Horizon of Level 5 Autonomy
	Teleoperation: A Historical Perspective and Automotive Application
		Teleoperation\'s Role in Connected Mobility
		The Multifaceted Nature of Teleoperation
	The Pivotal Role of Teleoperation in Vehicles
		Challenges of Full Autonomy
			Overcoming Environmental Perception and Recognition Hurdles
			Long Downtime Due to Unfamiliar Environment Interpretation
		Unpredictable Sensor Failures and Erroneous Data
	Teleoperation Regulations and Policies
		Teleoperation Regulations
			Regulations in the United States
			Global Regulatory Perspectives
			Case Study: Teleoperation Legislation in Germany
		Developing Standards for Teleoperation
	Technical Considerations and Innovations in Teleoperation
		Critical Technical Considerations
		Advancements in Teleoperation Techniques
			Enhancing Operator Perception
			Developing an Immersive Virtual Driving Interface
			Advancing Control Systems for Enhanced Teleoperation
			Strategies for Mitigating Latency in Teleoperation
	Evaluation Standards for Teleoperation Performance
	Leading Automotive Participants in Teleoperation
		Automotive Companies and Start-Ups
		Teleoperation Service Providers
	Case Studies and Applications of Teleoperation
	Challenges and Discussions
		Key Challenges in Teleoperation
			Bandwidth Limitations
			Challenges of Latency in Teleoperation
			Additional Challenges in Teleoperation
		Future Perspectives in Teleoperation
	Summary
	References
Testing for Vehicle Computing
	Benchmark Suites for Vehicles
		Architecture and System for Vehicles
		Automotive Benchmark Suites
		Case Study: CAVBench
	Metrics for Vehicle Computing Systems
		Accuracy
		Timeliness
		Power
		Cost
		Reliability
		Privacy
		Security
	Simulation for Vehicle Computing
		Comparisons of Diverse Simulators
		Traffic Simulators
		Vehicle-Level Simulators
		Multi-Resolution Simulators
		Digital Twin
		Case Study: BlueICE and D-STAR
			BlueICE: An Advanced Simulator
			D-STAR: A Testing Scenario of BlueICE
	Testbeds for Vehicle Computing
		Outdoor Testbeds
		Indoor Testbeds
		Single-Vehicle and Multi-Vehicle Testing
		Case Study: ICAT
			ICAT\'s Distinctive Advantages
			ICAT Testing
	Challenges and Discussions
		Experimental Platforms
		Physical World Coupling
	Summary
	References
Index