Value-Addition in Food Products and Processing Through Enzyme Technology

Value-Addition in Food Products and Processing Through Enzyme Technology
Copyright
Contributors
Foreword
Preface
About the editors
1. Enzyme technology for production of food ingredients and functional foods
	1. Introduction
	2. Functional ingredients and functional foods
	3. Bioactive ingredients for the formulation of functional foods
		3.1 Probiotics
		3.2 Prebiotics
		3.3 Synbiotic
		3.4 Antioxidants
		3.5 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
	4. Functional foods formulation
	5. Regulations of functional foods
	6. Enzymes in production of functional foods
		6.1 Lipases
		6.2 Proteases
		6.3 Carbohydrate-modifying enzyme
		6.4 Tannase
		6.5 l-asparaginase
		6.6 Phytases
	7. Alternatives for the recovery or extraction of enzymes with possible applications in the food field
	8. Opportunities of enzyme technology for production of food ingredients and functional foods
	9. Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
2. Enzymes in probiotics and genetically modified foods
	1. Introduction
	2. Probiotic enzymes for the food industry
	3. Engineered probiotics for food applications
	4. Genetically modified food: current perspectives and future prospects
	Acknowledgment
	References
3. Extremozymes in food production and processing
	1. Introduction
	2. Extremophiles
	3. Amylase
	4. Xylanase
	5. Lipases and esterases
	6. Proteases
	7. Conclusions
	References
4. Enzyme technology in the production of flavors and food additives
	1. Introduction
	2. Regulatory requirements for food additives and flavors
	3. Food additives
		3.1 Enzymes as food additives
		3.2 Enzymatic production of food antioxidants
			3.2.1 Ascorbyl esters
			3.2.2 Polyphenolic esters
		3.3 Enzymatic production of sugar ester surfactants
		3.4 Enzymatic production of sweetening syrup as sugar substitutes
	4. Natural food pigments and colors
		4.1 Enzyme-catalyzed synthesis of natural carotenoids
		4.2 Enzyme-assisted extraction and concentration of natural carotenoids
	5. Enzyme technology in the production of flavors
	6. Conclusion
	References
5. Enzyme technology applied to biomolecule synthesis for the food industry
	1. Introduction
	2. Amino acids and organic acids
		2.1 Biotechnological production of glutamic acid
		2.2 Biotechnological production of l-lysine
	3. Polysaccharides and oligosaccharides
		3.1 Polysaccharides
		3.2 Oligosaccharides
	4. Enzymatic production of aroma and taste compounds
	References
6. Enzyme technology in value addition of bakery and confectionery products
	1. Introduction
	2. Bread quality determinations
	3. Additives in bread-making process
	4. Enzymes from flour
		4.1 Xylanase
		4.2 Phytase
		4.3 Cellulase
		4.4 Amylases
		4.5 Lipases
		4.6 Proteases
	5. Enzyme mixture
	6. Sources of enzymes
	7. Application of fungal enzymatic mix
	8. Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
7. Enzymatic processes for the production of food ingredients from food processing by-products
	1. Introduction
	2. Development of the enzymatic process
		2.1 Selection of enzymes
		2.2 Operating parameters
		2.3 Experimental design
		2.4 Chemical characterization of hydrolysates
	3. Downstream processing
	4. Whey hydrolysates
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Enzymatic production of hydrolysates
		4.3 Bioactive peptides
	5. Fish hydrolysates
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Enzymatic production of fish hydrolysates
		5.3 Potential applications of hydrolysates
	6. Beer industry by-products
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Enzymatic production of hydrolysates
		6.3 Enzyme-assisted valorization of brewers' by-products
		6.4 Potential applications of hydrolysates
	7. Wine industry by-product
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Enzyme-assisted grape pomace valorization
	8. Citrus clouding agents for fruit flavored beverages
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Enzymatic production of clouding agents from citrus peels
	9. Conclusions
	References
8. Enzymes in fruit and vegetable processing
	1. Introduction
		1.1 Market potential of fruit and vegetable processing enzymes
	2. Fruit and vegetables—chemical composition
		2.1 Water
		2.2 Carbohydrates
		2.3 Lipids
		2.4 Nitrogenous substances
		2.5 Vitamins
		2.6 Minerals
		2.7 Organic acids
		2.8 Other components
	3. Enzymes in fruit and vegetable processing
		3.1 Pectinases
		3.2 Cellulases
		3.3 Xylanases (hemicellulases)
		3.4 Tannases
		3.5 Amylases (α- and β-)
		3.6 Enzymatic browning of fruits and vegetables
	4. Future perspectives
	References
9. Enzymatic synthesis of prebiotics from conventional food and beverages rich in sugars
	1. Introduction
	2. Food products rich in lactose
		2.1 Enzymatic production of galactooligosaccharides from lactose
		2.2 Enzymatic production of lactulose from lactose
		2.3 Microbial β-galactosidases overview
	3. Food products rich in sucrose
		3.1 Enzymatic production of fructooligosaccharides from sucrose
		3.2 Natural and low-cost sources of sucrose to produce FOS
			3.2.1 Sugarcane
			3.2.2 Aguamiel or agave juice
		3.3 Prebiotic effect and applications of FOS
		3.4 Microbial β-fructofuranosidases and fructosyltransferases overview
	4. Food products rich in starch
		4.1 Enzymatic production of isomaltooligosaccharides production from starch
		4.2 Microbial amylases overview
	5. Food products rich in inulin
		5.1 Microbial endo-inulinases and exo-inulinases overview
	6. Future trends
	7. Conclusions
	References
10. Enzymes in dairy products
	1. Introduction
	2. Enzymes and industrial biotechnology
		2.1 Background
		2.2 Sources of enzymes
		2.3 Enzyme-based industrial biotechnology
	3. Enzymes in the dairy industry
	4. Analytical strategies in dairy products
	5. Biofilm contamination: a significant issue of dairy products
		5.1 Adhering diverse microbial strains to dairy products
		5.2 Intelligent packaging—an innovation
	6. Enzymes in dairy products: exemplary justifications
	7. Commercial overview of industrial enzymes
		7.1 Enzyme commercialization per application
		7.2 Enzyme commercialization per geography
		7.3 Enzyme commercialization per functionality of an enzyme
	8. Approaches to broaden the horizon of enzymes in dairy industries
	9. Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
11. Emerging trends and future perspectives on enzyme prospection with reference to food processing
	1. Introduction
	2. Identification of novel enzymes
		2.1 Novel extreme conditions resistant enzymes: potentially for industrial applications
	3. Meta “omic” tools: new trends for enzyme identification
	4. Recombinant proteins and enzyme engineering
		4.1 Molecular engineering of recombinant proteins and enzymes
		4.2 Heterologous expression
	5. Enzyme purification and challenges
		5.1 Challenges in enzyme application
	6. Future perspectives
	References
12. Enzymes in nutrition, baby foods, and food safety
	1. Introduction
	2. Enzymes in infant milk formula production
		2.1 Protein hydrolyzate–based infant formulas
			2.1.1 Partial or low-degree hydrolyzed formula
			2.1.2 High-degree hydrolyzed formula
		2.2 Infant formulas with structured lipid
			2.2.1 Lipase-produced structured sn-2 palmitic acid
			2.2.2 Lipase-produced concentrates of omega-3 fatty acids for IMF formulation
	3. Enzymes in cereal-based baby food production
	4. Food enzymes and safety
		4.1 Regulatory aspects of enzymes in baby food manufacturing
	5. Conclusion
	References
13. Extremophilic carbohydrases: production, application, and challenges in association with food processing
	1. Introduction
	2. Industrial food enzymes: carbohydrases, their practices, and demands
	3. Carbohydrases as extremophilic industrial enzymes: properties, advantages, and disadvantages
		3.1 Heat-adapted extremophilic carbohydrases
		3.2 Cold-adapted extremophilic carbohydrases
		3.3 pH-adapted extremophilic carbohydrases
			3.3.1 Acidophilic/alkaliphilic enzymes
		3.4 Salt-adapted (halophilic) extremophilic carbohydrases
		3.5 Organic medium–adapted extremophilic carbohydrases
	4. Production of extremophilic carbohydrases
		4.1 Source and methods of extremozymes production
		4.2 Challenges in production
		4.3 Economy of production
	5. Challenges in the application of extremophilic carbohydrases
	6. Conclusion
	References
14. Enzymes in fructooligosaccharides production
	1. Introduction
	2. Chemical structure of FOS
	3. FOS: functional ingredient and prebiotic effect
	4. Recovery of FOS from natural source
	5. FOS production by hydrolysis of inulin
	6. FOS production by transfructosylation process from sucrose
	7. FTase and FFase production
	8. Agro-industrial wastes as substrate for enzyme production
	9. FOS production by immobilized enzymes
	10. Future prospect
	References
15. Enzymes in seafood processing
	1. Introduction
	2. Proteases
		2.1 Production of protein hydrolyzates
		2.2 Proteases in the deproteination of crustacean wastes for chitin recovery
		2.3 Removal of bad taste in the FPH
		2.4 Development of seafood flavorings
		2.5 Removal of skin and scales from fish
		2.6 Deskinning of squids with proteases
		2.7 Caviar production
		2.8 Oil extraction from discarded roe
		2.9 Preparation of fish meal for aquaculture feed
		2.10 Extraction of carotenoids
		2.11 Fish fermentation to produce fish sauce and shrimp paste
		2.12 Ripening
	3. Other enzymes involved in seafood processing
		3.1 Transglutaminase
		3.2 Lipases
		3.3 Amylase
		3.4 Lysozyme
		3.5 Glucose oxidase
		3.6 Enzymes can be recovered from the fish and fish wastes
		3.7 Cold-active enzymes
	4. By-products derived from seafood processing
		4.1 Collagen
		4.2 Gelatin
		4.3 Seafood waste processing
	5. Analytical applications
		5.1 Freshness in fish
		5.2 Differentiation of seafood species
		5.3 Detection of pollutants in fish
	6. Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
16. Commercial enzymes in dairy processing
	1. Introduction
		1.1 Global market
		1.2 Dairy product processing
		1.3 Sources of commercial enzymes
	2. Types of enzymes
		2.1 Protease
		2.2 Rennet – chymosin and pepsin
			2.2.1 Microbial rennet and recombinant rennet
			2.2.2 Production
		2.3 Lipase
		2.4 Lactase
		2.5 Catalase
		2.6 Oxidoreductase
	3. Enzyme-modified cheese
	4. Challenges and future prospects
	5. Conclusion
	References
17. Structured acylglycerides emulsifiers with bioactive fatty acids as food ingredients
	1. Bioactive compounds
		1.1 Bioactive lipids
			1.1.1 Omega-3 fatty acids
				1.1.1.1 Description
				1.1.1.2 Biological activity
			1.1.2 Conjugated linoleic acid
				1.1.2.1 Description
				1.1.2.2 Biological activity
			1.1.3 Medium-chain fatty acids
				1.1.3.1 Description
				1.1.3.2 Biological activity
			1.1.4 Other functional fatty acids
	2. Structured lipids
		2.1 Strategies for lipid modification
		2.2 Enzyme modification of lipids
		2.3 Lipases
			2.3.1 Mechanisms
			2.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages
			2.3.3 Uses in the food industry
		2.4 Factors that affect the enzymatic modification of lipids
			2.4.1 Substrate reactivity
			2.4.2 The molar ratio of substrates
			2.4.3 Temperature
			2.4.4 Enzyme load
			2.4.5 pH
			2.4.6 Water content and water activity
			2.4.7 Physical characteristics
	3. Emulsifiers
		3.1 Acylglycerides
			3.1.1 Monoacylglycerides
				3.1.1.1 Biological activities
			3.1.2 Diacylglycerides
				3.1.2.1 Biological activities
			3.1.3 Uses in foods
	References
18. Adding value to processes, products, and by-products from the poultry industry through enzymatic technologies
	1. Introduction
	2. Use of enzymes to improve feeding in chickens
	3. Enzymatic treatment of egg products
		3.1 Adding value to egg yolk
		3.2 Adding value to egg white
	4. Improvement of quality and development of new products in chicken meat using transglutaminases
	5. Adding value to chicken and egg by-products through enzymatic treatments
		5.1 Eggshell
		5.2 Eggshell membrane
			5.2.1 Eggshell membranes as a source of hyaluronic acid and bioactive peptides
		5.3 Chicken bone
		5.4 Feathers
	6. Conclusion
	References
19. In situ enzymatic synthesis of prebiotics to improve food functionality
	1. Introduction
	2. Prebiotics as functional ingredients
	3. Enzymatic synthesis of prebiotics
		3.1 Fructooligosaccharides
		3.2 Galactooligosaccharides, lactulose, and lactosucrose
		3.3 Xylooligosaccharides
		3.4 Arabinoxylooligosaccharides
		3.5 Isomaltooligosaccharides
		3.6 Maltooligosaccharides
	4. Prebiotics in food
		4.1 Fortification with prebiotics
		4.2 In situ prebiotic production
	5. Conclusions and future trends
	Acknowledgments
	References
20. Pectinase use in olive oil extraction processes
	1. Introduction
	2. Olive oil: composition, production, and utilization
	3. How to produce olive oil: an overview
		3.1 Traditional process
		3.2 Three-phase process
		3.3 Two-phase process
	4. Improving olive oil yield and quality: an enzymatic approach
		4.1 Pectinase utilization
	5. Pectinase and other applications in the food industry
		5.1 Extraction of other oils
		5.2 Juice production
		5.3 Wine processing
		5.4 Coffee production
	6. Limiting factors for pectinases' commercial use and proposed solutions
	7. Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
21. Lycopene extraction from tomato waste assisted by cellulase and pectinase
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and methods
		2.1 Enzymes and chemicals
		2.2 Preparation of samples
		2.3 Enzyme-assisted lycopene extraction
		2.4 Determination of lycopene
		2.5 Optimization of lycopene extraction parameters
		2.6 Statistical analysis
	3. Results and discussion
	4. Conclusions
	References
22. Novel vegetal enzymes used in the obtention of protein hydrolyzates and bioactive peptides derived from various sources of  ...
	1. Enzymes: proteolytic enzymes
	2. Proteolytic enzyme sources
		2.1 Animal proteases
		2.2 Microbial proteases
		2.3 Vegetable proteases
	3. Novel sources of proteolytic enzymes
	4. Protein sources for proteolytic enzymes
		4.1 Protein substrates from meat by-products
			4.1.1 Obtaining hydrolyzates and peptides by the effect of enzymes and novel enzyme sources
			4.1.2 Bioactive potential of hydrolyzates and peptides obtained from meat by-products
				4.1.2.1 Bovine by-products
				4.1.2.2 Porcine by-products
				4.1.2.3 Poultry by-products
			4.1.3 Prospects for the application of hydrolyzates and peptides from various meat and by-product sources
	References
23. Value-added seafood products processing through novel enzyme
	1. Introduction
	2. Importance of seafood in human nutrient, diet, and health
		2.1 Omega-3 fatty acids
		2.2 Proteins
		2.3 Vitamins
	3. Seafood processing
		3.1 Retort pouch processing
		3.2 Irradiation
		3.3 High-pressure processing
	4. Preservation techniques of seafood
		4.1 Natural preservation
			4.1.1 Chitosan
			4.1.2 Bacteriocins
		4.2 Technique of salting
			4.2.1 Wet salting
				4.2.1.1 Brining
				4.2.1.2 Pickle curing
			4.2.2 Dry salting
		4.3 Drying
		4.4 Freezing
		4.5 Canning
	5. Seafood enzymes and their applications
		5.1 Role of seafood enzymes
			5.1.1 Mince-based products
			5.1.2 Enriched fish oils—PUFA
			5.1.3 Seafood flavoring
			5.1.4 Meat tenderization
			5.1.5 Increase of shelf life
	6. Crab species: Portunus pelagicus processing
	7. Value-added seafood products
	8. Conclusion
	References
24. Enzyme-aimed extraction of bioactive compounds from crustaceans by-products
	1. Introduction
	2. Chitin and chitosan extracted by enzymatic processes from crustacean species
		2.1 Chitin
		2.2 Chitosan
	3. Protein and peptides extracted by enzymatic processes from crustacean species
		3.1 Shrimp
		3.2 Crab
	4. Carotenoids extracted by an enzymatic process from crustacean species
	5. Perspectives
	6. Conclusion
	References
25. An overview of enzyme technology used in food industry
	1. Basic considerations on enzymes
	2. Implementation of enzymes in food processing
	3. Representative of enzymes in food processing
		3.1 Hydrolase
		3.2 Isomerases
		3.3 Oxidoreductases
		3.4 Transferases
		3.5 Lyases
	4. The sources of enzyme for food processing applications
		4.1 Hydrolases
		4.2 Isomerases
		4.3 Oxidoreductases
		4.4 Transferases
		4.5 Lyases
	5. Conclusion
	References
26. Finding novel enzymes by in silico bioprospecting approach
	1. Introduction
	2. In silico bioprospecting
		2.1 Conventional approach
		2.2 Computational approach
			2.2.1 Exploring databases to obtain novel candidates
				2.2.1.1 Why there is a need to explore databases to obtain novel candidate?
				2.2.1.2 Ways to search databases via in silico bioprospecting approach to obtain novel enzymes
				2.2.1.3 Studies using in silico bioprospecting of novel enzymes
				2.2.1.4 Studies using in silico bioprospecting on the basis of homology
				2.2.1.5 In silico bioprospecting via analyzing conserved domain
				2.2.1.6 The combination of homology and conserved domain approach
			2.2.2 In silico characterization of novel candidates
				2.2.2.1 Primary sequence analysis and secondary structure analysis
				2.2.2.2 Tertiary structure analysis and evaluation
				2.2.2.3 Phylogenetic analysis
				2.2.2.4 Functional analysis
				2.2.2.5 Protein interaction network
				2.2.2.6 Conserved motif, domains, peptide, epitope, glycosylation, disulfide bonds, antigenicity, and localization
				2.2.2.7 Molecular dynamics simulation studies
				2.2.2.8 Molecular docking
	3. Conclusion
	References
27. What enzyme-modified proteins are able to do
	1. Enzymes and proteases: production, market, and performance
	2. Proteases in the hydrolysis of milk proteins
	3. Proteases in the hydrolysis of insect proteins
	4. Protease supplementation of fish feed
	5. Conclusion
	References
28. Microbial lipases and their applications in the food industry
	1. Introduction
	2. Sources of lipase
		2.1 Lipases from plant sources
		2.2 Lipases from animal sources
		2.3 Lipases from microbial sources
			2.3.1 Bacteria
			2.3.2 Fungi
			2.3.3 Yeast
	3. Classification, mechanism, and activity of lipases
		3.1 Classification of lipase
		3.2 Reaction mechanism of lipases
		3.3 Activity of lipases
	4. Immobilization of lipases for industrial application
		4.1 Limits of free lipase used in the industrial environment
		4.2 Immobilization of lipase
	5. Biotechnological applications of lipases in the food industry
		5.1 Dairy
		5.2 Bakery and confectioneries
		5.3 Egg processing
		5.4 Processing of fats and oil
		5.5 Flavoring and aroma
		5.6 Meat and fish products
	6. Conclusion and future direction
	Acknowledgments
	References
29. Enzyme-based food modification in managing digestive disorders
	1. Introduction
	2. Immune mechanism
		2.1 Innate and acquired immunity
		2.2 Inflammation associated with immune response
			2.2.1 Autoimmune diseases
		2.3 Autoimmune disease mechanism
			2.3.1 Celiac disease—gluten as the trigger
		2.4 Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
	3. Immune system modulation by nutrient availability in GIT
		3.1 Role of gut “microbiome” in immune response
		3.2 Role of gut bacteria in auto immune response
		3.3 Manipulation of gut microflora through nutrition
		3.4 Celiac disease management by gut microbial regulation
		3.5 Supplementation of suitable prebiotics and probiotics in CD
	4. Enzyme therapy in CD management
		4.1 Sources of therapeutic enzymes for CD
		4.2 Administration mode of therapeutic enzymes
	5. Gluten-processed wheat products
		5.1 Processing of wheat gluten by microbial system
		5.2 Enzymatic processing of wheat gluten
	6. Summary
	References
30. Trends in the enzymatic inhibition by natural extracts: a health and food science and technology approach
	1. Acetylcholinesterase
		1.1 Natural extracts employed as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
		1.2 Health importance of the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase
		1.3 Recent trends of plants extract as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, a health approach
	2. Polyphenol oxidase
		2.1 Importance of the inhibition of polyphenol oxidase for the food science and technology
		2.2 Recent trends of plants extract as polyphenol oxidase inhibitors, a food science and technology approach
	3. Amylase
		3.1 Plant extracts employed as amylase inhibitors
		3.2 Importance of the inhibition of amylase for the health and food science and technology
		3.3 Recent plant extract trends as amylase inhibitors, a health and food science and technology approach
	4. Lipases
		4.1 Natural extracts employed as lipase inhibitors
		4.2 Importance of the inhibition of lipase for the health and the food science and technology
		4.3 Recent trends of plants extract as lipase inhibitors, a health and food science and technology approach
	5. Prostaglandin synthetase
		5.1 Health importance of the inhibition of prostaglandin synthetase
		5.2 Plant extracts employed as prostaglandin synthetase inhibitors
		5.3 Recent trends of plants extract as prostaglandin synthetase inhibitors, a health approach
	6. Protease
		6.1 Plant extracts employed as serine protease inhibitors
		6.2 Importance of the inhibition of serine protease for the health and the food science and technology
	7. Urease
		7.1 Natural extracts employed as urease inhibitors
		7.2 Importance of the inhibition of urease for the health and the food science and technology
		7.3 Recent trends of plants extract as urease inhibitors, a health and food science and technology approach
	References
31. Effect of microbial transglutaminase on the production of fish myofibrillar and vegetable protein-based products
	1. Introduction
	2. Gelation of fish myofibrillar and vegetable proteins
		2.1 Role of microbial transglutaminase on fish myofibrillar proteins
		2.2 Role of microbial transglutaminase on vegetal proteins
	3. Nutritional properties on myofibrillar and vegetable protein–based gels of MTGase
	4. Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
32. Pectinases produced by extremophilic yeasts: from cold environments to the food industry
	1. Pectin
		1.1 Galacturonans
		1.2 Rhamnogalacturonan I
	2. Pectinases
		2.1 Homogalacturonan-degrading enzymes
		2.2 Rhamnogalacturonan-degrading enzymes
		2.3 Side-chain-degrading enzymes
	3. Pectin and pectinases in the food industry
		3.1 Pectin
		3.2 Pectinases
			3.2.1 Juice processing
			3.2.2 Wine and cider making
			3.2.3 Maceration of plant tissues
			3.2.4 Vegetable oil extraction
			3.2.5 Coffee and tea fermentation
	4. Cold-active pectinases from cold-adapted yeasts
		4.1 Cold-active pectinases from extremophilic yeasts from polar and subpolar habitats
		4.2 Cold-active pectinases from extremophilic yeasts from nonpolar habitats
		4.3 Other cold-active pectinases
	5. Biochemical properties of cold-active pectinases
	6. Role of cold-active pectinases in the food industry
	7. Concluding remarks
	References
33. Recent developments in enzyme immobilization for food production
	1. Introduction: biocatalyst immobilization
		1.1 Immobilization methods
			1.1.1 Binding to a solid carrier
				1.1.1.1 Noncovalent
				1.1.1.2 Covalent
			1.1.2 Entrapment/(micro)encapsulation
			1.1.3 Cross-linking
		1.2 Novel carriers
	2. Applications
		2.1 Dairy
			2.1.1 Lactose hydrolysis
				2.1.1.1 Synthesis of galactooligosaccharides
		2.2 Fats and oils
		2.3 Juices
		2.4 Sweeteners
			2.4.1 Caloric sweeteners
			2.4.2 Low-calorie sweeteners
		2.5 Wine
			2.5.1 Crushing, pressing, and maceration
			2.5.2 Fermentation
			2.5.3 Clarification
			2.5.4 Stabilization and aging
	3. Conclusions
	References
34. Significance of enzyme kinetics in food processing and production
	1. Introduction
	2. Enzymes functionality
		2.1 Oxidoreductases (EC 1)
			2.1.1 Glucose oxidase (EC 1.1.3.4)
			2.1.2 Laccase (EC 1.10.3.2)
			2.1.3 Catalase (EC 1.11.1.6)
			2.1.4 Lactoperoxidase dismutase (EC 1.11.1.7)
			2.1.5 Lipoxygenase (EC 1.13.11)
			2.1.6 Superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1), formaldehyde dismutase (EC 1.11.1.7), lactoperoxidase (EC 1.11.1.7)
		2.2 Transferases (EC 2)
			2.2.1 Glucansucrase (EC 2.1.4.5)
			2.2.2 Transglutaminase (EC 2.3.2)
			2.2.3 Glycosyltransferase (EC 2.4)
			2.2.4 Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (EC 2.4.1.19)
			2.2.5 Fucosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.65)
		2.3 Hydrolases (EC 3)
			2.3.1 Phospholipase (EC 3.1)
			2.3.2 Lipase (EC 3.1.1.3)
			2.3.3 Pectinesterase (EC 3.1.1.11)
			2.3.4 Tannase (EC 3.1.1.20)
			2.3.5 Phytase (EC 3.1.3.8)
			2.3.6 α-Amylase (EC 3.2.1.1)
			2.3.7 β-Amylase (EC 3.2.1.1)
			2.3.8 Amyloglucosidase (EC 3.2.1.3)
			2.3.9 Cellulase (EC 3.2.1.4)
			2.3.10 Pentosanase (EC 3.2.1.8)
			2.3.11 Xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8)
			2.3.12 Endoxylanase (EC 3.2.1.8)
			2.3.13 Pectinase (3.2.1.15)
			2.3.14 Lysozyme (3.2.1.17)
			2.3.15 α-Galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.22)
			2.3.16 β-Galactosidase or lactase (EC 3.2.1.23)
			2.3.17 Invertase (EC 3.2.1.26)
			2.3.18 Naringinase (EC 3.2.1.40)
			2.3.19 Pullulanase (EC 3.2.1.41)
			2.3.20 β-Glucanase (EC 3.2.1.91)
			2.3.21 Protease (EC 3.4)
			2.3.22 Aminopeptidase (EC 3.4.11)
			2.3.23 Bromelain (EC 3.4.22.33) and papain (EC 3.4.22.2)
			2.3.24 Chymosin (EC 3.4.23.4)
			2.3.25 l-Asparaginase (EC 3.5.1.1)
			2.3.26 Glutaminase (EC 3.5.1.2)
		2.4 Lyases (EC 4)
			2.4.1 Acetolactate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.5)
			2.4.2 Alginate lyase (EC 4.2.2.3)
		2.5 Isomerases (EC 5)
			2.5.1 Glucose isomerase (EC 5.3.1.5)
	3. Mechanism of enzyme reaction
	4. Factors influencing enzyme activity
		4.1 pH
		4.2 Temperature
		4.3 Substrate concentration
		4.4 Enzyme concentration
		4.5 Cofactors
		4.6 Inhibitors
	5. Activity and kinetic of enzymes
		5.1 Activity
		5.2 Kinetic
	6. Enzymes benefits and profit implications
		6.1 Dairy industry
		6.2 Meat and poultry
		6.3 Fruit and vegetable processing
		6.4 Bakery industry
		6.5 Production of beer and wine
		6.6 Modification of polysaccharides
	7. Conclusions
	References
35. Value addition in food supply chain and bioeconomy
	1. Introduction
	2. General characteristics, advantages, and limitations of value-added supply chains
	3. Steps involved in value addition for food supply chain
		3.1 Farmers value addition
		3.2 Suppliers value addition
		3.3 Processors value addition
		3.4 Distributors value addition
		3.5 Retailer value addition
	4. Sustainable food value chain and its development
	5. Bioeconomy
	6. Measurement of bioeconomy
	7. Global trend toward bioeconomy
	8. Bioeconomy – agriculture, food security, and public goods linkages
	9. Conclusion
	References
36. Emerging trends and future prospective in enzyme technology
	1. Introduction
	2. Enzymes engineering and technology
	3. Enzyme application in various industries
		3.1 Food industry
		3.2 Detergent industry
		3.3 Paper and pulp industry
			3.3.1 Bleaching of the pulp
			3.3.2 Deinking
			3.3.3 Pitch removal
		3.4 Biofuel industry
		3.5 Medical and pharmaceutical industry
			3.5.1 Enzymes in disease diagnosis
			3.5.2 Enzymes in disease treatment
		3.6 Textile industry
	4. Enzymes in food sector
		4.1 Rennet
		4.2 Lactase
		4.3 Protease
		4.4 Catalase
		4.5 Glucose oxidase
		4.6 α-Amylase
		4.7 Pentosanase
		4.8 β-Glucanase
		4.9 Amyloglucosidase
		4.10 Laccase
		4.11 Xylanase
		4.12 Naringinase
	5. Enzyme immobilization and scope of implementation
		5.1 Methods of immobilization
			5.1.1 Adsorption
			5.1.2 Covalent binding
			5.1.3 Entrapment
			5.1.4 Membrane confinement or encapsulation
			5.1.5 Cross-linking
	6. Future prospective in enzyme technology
	7. Conclusion
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y