Trends in Biosensing Research: Advances, Challenges and Applications

Preface
Contents
Chimeric Protein Switch Biosensors
	1 Introduction
	2 Recognition Elements
		2.1 Antibodies as Recognition Elements
		2.2 Antibody Fragments as Recognition Elements in Chimeric Protein Biosensors
		2.3 Nanobodies as Recognition Elements
		2.4 Antibody Mimetics as Recognition Elements
		2.5 Peptides as Recognition Elements
		2.6 Aptamers as Recognition Elements
		2.7 De Novo Proteins as Recognition Elements
	3 Sensing Targets
		3.1 Transduction Methods
		3.2 Switching Mechanisms
		3.3 One Component Protein Switches
			3.3.1 Domain-Inserted Design
			3.3.2 Modular Design
		3.4 Multicomponent Protein Switches
			3.4.1 Split Enzymes
	4 Conclusions
	References
Applications of Graphene Field Effect Biosensors for Biological Sensing
	1 Introduction and Background
	2 Principle of Operation
		2.1 Overview
		2.2 gFET FEB Compact Model
		2.3 Structure of gFET Sensor
		2.4 gFET Sensor Biochemical Interaction Model
	3 Basic Applications
		3.1 pH and Salinity
		3.2 Protein-Protein Interactions
		3.3 Small Molecule Measurement
	4 Bioaffinity-Based Detection
		4.1 DNA and RNA Detection
		4.2 CRISPR-Cas System
		4.3 CRISPR-Cas Powered gFET Biosensor
		4.4 Extracellular Vesicles and Cells
	5 Requirements for Successful Use
		5.1 Scaled Manufacturing
		5.2 Surface Chemistry
		5.3 Choosing a Capture Molecule for Immobilization
		5.4 Capture Molecule in Solution
		5.5 Buffers and Blocking
		5.6 Looking Forward: Multiomics
	References
Rationally Designed DNA-Based Scaffolds and Switching Probes for Protein Sensing
	1 Introduction
	2 The Many Advantages of Structure-Switching Biosensors
	3 Engineering Structure Switching DNA Receptors
		3.1 Formation of Duplex Motifs as Regulators of Structure Switching
		3.2 Splitting DNA-Based Recognition Elements into Two or More Independent Fragments
		3.3 Selection Processes of Structure-Switching DNA Recognition Elements and Their Optimization Through Molecular Engineering
	4 Protein Detection Using Structure-Switching DNA Receptors
		4.1 Structure-Switching DNA-Based Aptamers for the Optical Detection of Proteins
		4.2 Structure-Switching Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Biosensors for Protein Detection
		4.3 DNA-Based Switches for the Detection of Transcription Factors
		4.4 Activity-Based Sensors: DNA-Based Switches for the Monitoring of Repair Enzymes
	5 Programmable DNA Nanostructures as Scaffolds for Biomolecule Detection
		5.1 Simple Single and Double Stranded DNA Scaffolds for Sensing Applications
		5.2 DNA as Building Block of Complex Nanostructures
		5.3 Electrochemical DNA Scaffold Sensors for Protein and Antibody Detection
		5.4 Proximity-Based DNA Scaffold Sensors for Protein and Antibody Detection
	6 Conclusions
	References
Imprinted Polymers on the Route to Plastibodies for Biomacromolecules (MIPs), Viruses (VIPs), and Cells (CIPs)
	1 Introduction
	2 Polymer Synthesis: From Bulk Polymers to Nano-MIPs and Fully-Electrochemical Sensors
	3 Signal Readout and Measuring
	4 ``Whole Analyte´´: Imprinted Polymers vs. Imprinting of Substructures (Epitope, Engineered Tags, and Labels) of Biomacromole...
	5 MIPs for Recognition of Proteins
		5.1 Protein-Imprinted Polymers
			5.1.1 β-Amyloid
			5.1.2 Choline Esterases
		5.2 Epitope MIPs for Proteins
			5.2.1 Immunoglobulins
			5.2.2 Cancer Biomarker AFP
			5.2.3 Metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1)
		5.3 Application of Protein MIPs
	6 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Recognition
		6.1 MIPs Based on Nucleosides and Labels as Template
		6.2 DNA-Imprinted Polymers
	7 Imprinted Polymers for Virus Recognition
		7.1 Virus-Imprinted Polymers (VIPs)
		7.2 Sub-Structure Imprinted Polymers for the Recognition of Viruses
		7.3 Functional Proteins of SARS-CoV-2 and Epitopes
	8 Imprinted Polymers for the Recognition of Cells
		8.1 Cell-Imprinted Polymers (CIPs)
		8.2 Imprinting of Cell Substructures
			8.2.1 Imprinting of Membrane Proteins
			8.2.2 Imprinting of Saccharides
		8.3 Applications of Cell Imprinting
	9 Outlook
	References
Recent Developments and Applications of Microbial Electrochemical Biosensors
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Basic MEB Operation
		1.2 Brief History of Microbial Electrochemistry and MEBs
	2 Microbial Electrochemical Biosensors
		2.1 MEB Operation
		2.2 Anodic MEBs
		2.3 Cathodic MEBs
		2.4 Analytes
			2.4.1 Inhibition Sensing
			2.4.2 Direct Sensing
	3 Bioelectrochemical Interfaces
		3.1 Methods of Extracellular Electron Transfer
		3.2 Electron Transfer in MEBs
	4 MEB Materials and Construction
		4.1 Electrode Materials
		4.2 Immobilization Methods
	5 Organisms Used in MEBs
		5.1 Monoculture MEBs
		5.2 Mixed Culture Consortium MEBs
	6 Limitations to MEBs
	7 State of the Art and Outlook
	References
Applications of Gold Nanoparticles in Plasmonic and Nanophotonic Biosensing
	1 Introduction
	2 Plasmonic Properties of Gold Nanoparticles
	3 Synthesis/Fabrication of Gold Nanostructures
		3.1 Solution Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles
			3.1.1 Varying Nanoparticle Size and Shape
				Nanorods
				Nanoshells
				Nanostars
				Other Shapes and Compositions
		3.2 Fabrication Techniques
			3.2.1 Electron-Beam (e-Beam) Lithography
			3.2.2 Colloidal Lithography
			3.2.3 Soft Lithography
		3.3 Surface Functionalization Techniques
		3.4 Bioconjugation Techniques and Bioassembly
			3.4.1 Gold-Thiol Chemistry
			3.4.2 Click Chemistry
			3.4.3 Protein-Ligand Binding
			3.4.4 Adsorption Techniques
			3.4.5 Bioassembly
	4 Plasmonic Sensing Applications
		4.1 Colorimetric Sensing
			4.1.1 Presence of Color
			4.1.2 Multicolor Sensing
			4.1.3 Aggregation-Based Colorimetric Changes
		4.2 Plasmonic Biosensors
		4.3 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy, SERS
			4.3.1 Hotspot Engineering
			4.3.2 SERS Nanotags
			4.3.3 Plasmonic Imaging
		4.4 Plasmon-Enhanced Fluorescent Sensing
		4.5 Photothermal Excitation of Nanoparticles
			4.5.1 Ultrafast Excitation
			4.5.2 Continuous Wave Excitation
			4.5.3 Applications of Photothermal Excitation
				Phototriggered Release
				Multiplexed Triggered Release
				Photothermal Signal
	5 Conclusions and Future Directions
	References
Wearing the Lab: Advances and Challenges in Skin-Interfaced Systems for Continuous Biochemical Sensing
	1 Introduction
	2 Beyond Glucose: Relevant Analytes and How to Access Them for Continuous Wearable Monitoring
		2.1 Sweat Biosensing
		2.2 Interstitial Fluid Biosensing
	3 Choosing the Most Appropriate Biorecognition Element
		3.1 Reactivity Based
		3.2 Affinity Based
			3.2.1 Antibodies
			3.2.2 Oligonucleotides (Aptamers)
			3.2.3 Others
	4 Transduction Mechanisms Suitable for Wearable Devices
		4.1 Optical Biosensing at the Skin Interface
			4.1.1 Colorimetric
			4.1.2 Fluorescence/Phosphorescence
		4.2 Electrochemical Transduction
			4.2.1 Potentiometry
			4.2.2 Voltammetric Techniques
			4.2.3 Impedimetric Techniques
			4.2.4 Transistors
	5 Advances in Materials, Methods, and Interfaces for Integrated Wearable Devices
		5.1 Materials
			5.1.1 Sensing Interface
			5.1.2 Sensor Coatings/Membranes
			5.1.3 Skin Interface
		5.2 Methods
			5.2.1 Power and Wireless Communication
			5.2.2 Calibration, Algorithms, and Operational Strategies
			5.2.3 Integrative Aspects and Considerations
	6 Major Hurdles and Promising Prospects: Can We Move Beyond Glucose?
	References
Solid-State Nanopores for Biomolecular Analysis and Detection
	1 Introduction to Solid-State Nanopores
	2 Working Principle and Tuning Properties of Nanopores
		2.1 The Electric Double Layer at the Electrode Interface
		2.2 Redox Reactions at Electrode Surfaces
		2.3 Debye Length and Double Layer Formation in the Nanopore
		2.4 Mass Transport Mechanisms
		2.5 Noise and Data Analysis for Nanopore Measurements
		2.6 Nanopore Fabrication, Size Tuning, and Functionalization
	3 Advances in Sequencing Using Solid-State Nanopores
		3.1 Tackling Remaining Challenges of Solid-State Nanopore DNA Sequencing
		3.2 Toward Solid-State Nanopore Protein Sequencing
	4 Applications Beyond Sequencing Using Solid-State Nanopores
		4.1 Nucleic Acid Biosensing
		4.2 Protein Biosensing
		4.3 Polysaccharides (Sugars) Biosensing
		4.4 Biosensing in Live Cells
	5 Prospects: Frontiers of Nanopore Technologies
	References
Microarray-Based Electrochemical Biosensing
	1 Introduction
	2 SECM
	3 Electrode Arrays
	4 ECL
	5 Bipolar Electrode Arrays
	6 Perspective and Conclusions
	References
Trends in Development of Aptamer-Based Biosensor Technology for Detection of Bacteria
	1 Introduction
	2 DNA Aptamers for Bacterial Biosensors
		2.1 Selection of Aptamers: Cell-SELEX
		2.2 Methods of Aptamer Immobilization on Surfaces
	3 Aptasensors for the Detection of Bacteria
		3.1 Electrochemical Transduction Principles for the Detection of Bacteria
			3.1.1 Escherichia coli
			3.1.2 Salmonella
			3.1.3 Staphylococcus Aureus
			3.1.4 Listeria Monocytogenes
			3.1.5 Other Bacteria
		3.2 Optical Aptasensors for the Detection of Bacteria
			3.2.1 Overview of Applied Optical Transduction Principles
			3.2.2 Examples of Sensorial Bacteria Detection Applying Optical Transduction
		3.3 Acoustic Aptasensors for the Detection of Bacteria
	4 Conclusion
	References
Signal-Amplified Nanobiosensors for Virus Detection Using Advanced Nanomaterials
	1 Introduction
	2 Biosensing Principles
		2.1 Electrochemical Biosensors for Virus Detection
			2.1.1 Impedimetric Biosensors
			2.1.2 Amperometric Biosensors
		2.2 Optical Biosensors for Virus Detection
			2.2.1 Colorimetric Biosensor
			2.2.2 Fluorescence Biosensor
	3 Signal Amplification Technology in Virus Biosensors
		3.1 Magnetic Separation
		3.2 Amplification of Analyte
		3.3 Nanomaterial-Based Signal Amplification
			3.3.1 Optical Properties of Nanoparticles
			3.3.2 Exploitation of Catalytic Properties of Nanomaterials
			3.3.3 Nanocarrier-Based Signal Amplification
	4 Conclusions and Future Trends
	References
Progress on the Electrochemical Sensing of Illicit Drugs
	1 Importance of Illicit Drug Detection and Monitoring in Society
		1.1 Detection in Drug Seizures
		1.2 Detection in Body Fluids
	2 Current Trends in Electrochemical Sensing of Illicit Drugs
		2.1 Electrochemical Sensors for Illicit Drug Detection in Seizures
			2.1.1 Voltammetric Techniques
			2.1.2 Software
		2.2 Electrochemical Sensors for Drug Detection in Body Fluids
		2.3 Wearable Electrochemical (Bio)sensors for Drug Detection
	3 Challenges
	4 Prospects
		4.1 Vision of Illicit Drug Detection in Seizures
		4.2 Vision of Illicit Drug Detection in Body Fluids
		4.3 Vision of Wearable Illicit Drug Detection
	5 Conclusions
	References