Transforming Unequal Gender Relations in India and Beyond: An Intersectional Perspective on Challenges and Opportunities (Sustainable Development Goals Series)

Foreword by Dr. Purnima Mane
Foreword by Martha Alter Chen
Preface: Insights into the Book
Acknowledgements
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Acronyms
SDG 5: How Real? How Sustainable?
1 SDG 5: Addressing Gaps and Accelerating Progress Towards a Feminist, Intersectional, and Transformative Vision for Change
	Abstract
	Introduction
	The Road to SDG 5
		The Beijing Platform for Action: 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women
		Millennium Development Goals: World View of the ‘Rich Men’s Club’?
		Sustainable Development Goals and SDG 5: Restoring the Spirit and Vision of Beijing Commitments
	SDGs and SDG 5: Two Steps Forward, One Step Back?
		Although Consultative, the Participation and Voices of Women’s Rights Organizations from the Global South Remained Constrained During the Negotiations that Shaped Agenda 2030
		The SDGs Do Not Challenge Neoliberal Power Structures and Paradigms—They Reinforce Them
		The Underlying Assumption of a Linear Relationship Between Economic Growth and Gender Equality is Questionable
		There Is No Accountability Set for the Private Sector Despite Its Growing Prominence and the Central Role It Is Expected to Play in Achieving Agenda 2030
		Empowerment and Human Rights Perspectives Are Largely Rhetorical in Agenda 2030, and Gender Transformative Approaches that Engage with Men and Masculinities Are Conspicuous by Their Absence
		Critical Concerns Around Unpaid Care, Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights, and Women’s Participation and Leadership Are Watered Down Within the Framing of SDG Targets
		The Promise to ‘Leave No One Behind’ Is Weakened by Unclear Articulation and Operationalization of Intersectionality and Inclusion
		What is Measured, Matters, and What is NOT Measured, Matters Even More for Monitoring Progress and Holding Duty-Bearers Accountable
	Gender and the COVID-19 Pandemic
	Way Forward: Gender Equality and SDG-5 in a Post-COVID World
		Building a Feminist, Care-Oriented Economic Paradigm
		Fostering Women’s Leadership and Collective Action
		Bridging Data Gaps for Evidence-Based Policy and Programming
		Intersectionality in Data and Design
	References
2 How Far Are We from Achieving Gender Equality Within SDGS Framework
	Abstract
	Introduction
		About SDGs
		SAHAJ’s Work: SDGs from a Gender Lens
		Equal Measures 2030: SDG Gender Index and Bending the Curve Report
			SDG Gender Index
			Bending the Curve Report
			Methodology
			Results
	India’s Progress on the Five Indicators
		Access to Modern Forms of Contraception
			Leave no One Behind
			Policy and Legal Context: Some Concerns
			Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic
			Policy Recommendations
		Girls’ Completion of Secondary Education
			Policy and Program Context
			Allocations for Education
			Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Girls’ Completion of Secondary Education
			Policy Recommendations
		Proportion of Ministerial and Senior Government Roles Held by Women
			Situation in India
			Legal Context
			Factors Hindering Women’s Political Participation
			COVID-19 Pandemic and the Impact on Women’s Political Participation
			Policy Recommendations
		Laws on Workplace Equality
			Policy and Legal Context in India
			COVID-19 Pandemic and Impact on Women’s Workplace Equality
			Policy Recommendations
		Women’s Perception of Safety
			Situation in India
			Legal, Policy, and Program Context
			COVID-19 Pandemic and Its Impact on Women’s Perception of Safety
			Policy Recommendations
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
3 Gender Equality: Missing Ecosystem to Realize De Jure Equality
	Abstract
	A Phase of Global Excitement, Aspirations, and Hopes for Gender Equality
	But How Serious Were the Governments in Implementing the Agenda of Gender Equality?
	The Gender Equality Agenda Receives a Further Setback: Onset of the Pandemic
	The Indian Story on Gender Equality: Paradoxical and Unfolding
	Way Forward
	References
4 Developing India Has an Underbelly: The Tale of Missing Daughters
	Abstract
	Introduction
	The Contemporary Scene
	Women’s Worth and Gendered Regime in India
	Development and Child Sex Ratios
	The Changing Pattern of Sex Ratio at Birth and Its Implications
	Structure and Agency
	The Rights Discourse
	In Sum
	References
5 Bridging the Digital Divide for Girls in India: Logging Her in!
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Efforts for Digital Empowerment of Girls in India
	Exploring the Digital Divide for Girls: Areas Concerning Digital Access, Equity, and Empowerment of Girls
		State of Access to Digital/mobile Devices
		Access to Connectivity Involving Cost
		Access Friendly Behavior: Attitude of Family and Environment
		Access to Relevant, Need-Based Content
		Access Limitations Due to Lack of Digital Skilling Support for Girls
	Impact of the COVID-19 on Digital Access for Girls
	Providing Access for the Digital Mainstreaming of Girls in India for a Secured and Resilient Future
		Investing in Digital Inclusion and Empowerment of Adolescent Girls as a Critical Social and Economic Need
		Evidence-Based Digital Inclusive Actions
		Sustainable Digital Safety Nets and Infrastructure to Address Financial Hardship in Digital Access for the Adolescent Girls
		Support in Connectivity and Affordability at the Bottom of the Digital Pyramid Will Propel the Digital Empowerment of Girls and Families
		Special Focus on Digital Learning or e-learning for Girls in Public Schools Will Promote Educational, Personal, and Family Empowerment
		Counseling Sessions and Online/offline Virtual Workshops Aiming Toward an Attitudinal Change of Parents of Adolescent Girls
		Specific Digital Skills Programs with Community and Institutional Provisions for the Adolescent Girls in Accessible and Affordable Modes Are Required in the Short and Mid-Term
		Making Useful Online Content and Ensuring Safe Digital Spaces for Adolescent Girls
		Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships to Mitigate Lost Progress of Bridging the Digital Gender Divide
		Digital Policy Framework for Girls
	Concluding Comments
	References
6 Gender Equality Stalled: Rethinking How to Achieve SDG 5 in Light of Covid-19 and Other Challenges
	Abstract
	The Impact of COVID-19 on Progress Toward SDG 5
	What Did We Hear from Women and Girls?
		Women and the ‘Shadow Pandemic’
		Women in Health Systems: Healthcare Workers as the Critical Lynchpin for Access to Services
		Women and Livelihoods
		Women in Food (Insecure) Systems
	Gender Data: Collect It Well and Use It
		Lesson 1: Collect Gender Data
		Lesson 2: Do It Well
		Lesson 3: Use It
	Transforming the Aid Sector: A Pre-Requisite for Progress on SDG 5
		Going Beyond the Rhetoric of Partnership to Accompaniment
		Accompanying Social Movements
		Impact at Scale
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
Women’s Economic Empowerment and Leadership: Non-negotiables
7 Women and COVID-19: Deepening the Gendered Fault Lines in India’s Labor Markets
	Abstract
	Introduction
		The Pathways for Achieving the Sustainable Development Goal 5 Targets by Increasing women’s Economic Participation
	Methodology
	Key Trends in women’s Work Participation Through the Decades
		Female Labor Force and Workforce Participation
		Gender Wage Gaps
	Long-Term Factors Affecting Female Labor Market Outcomes
		Occupational Segregation
		Increased Mechanization and Automation
		Income Effect
		Social Norms
		Education and Training
	Early COVID-19 Trends
		Trends in Labor Force Participation
		Trends in Employed Persons
		Prevalence of Unemployment
	Deciphering the Impact of COVID-19 on Women’s Work
		Unpaid Work
		Mobility Restrictions
		Digital Divide
		Institutional Support in the Work Ecosystem
		Private Sector-Led Support for Women in the Corporate Sector
		Informal Workers
		Entrepreneurship
		Education and Skill Training
		School Closures
		Skills Training
	Concluding Comments
	Acknowledgements
	Appendix 1
	List of Definitions
		Definitions
			Activity Status
			Casual Labor
			Employers
			Gender Wage Ratio
			Helpers in Household Enterprises
			Labor Force
			Labor Force Participation Rate
			Own-Account Workers
			Recovery Rate
			Salaried Employees
			Self-Employed
			Workforce Participation Rate
			Unemployment Rate
	Appendix 2
	Impact of COVID-19 National Lockdown on Labor Force and Employment Outcomes
		Impact on Labor Force
	Impact on Employment
	Appendix 3
	List of Stakeholder Consultations
		List of Stakeholders Consulted
	References
8 Gender, Energy, and the Advancement of Women in Leadership
	Abstract
	Chapter Organization and Key Definitions
	History of Gender and Energy Poverty
	Current Energy Access Issues and Gendered Dimensions
		Global Access to Electricity
		Clean Cooking Stoves and Fuels
		Renewable Energies
		Positive Global Trends
		Engaging Women in Energy Leadership
	A Strong Path Forward
	References
9 Are Gender Budgets Useful for Reducing Gender Inequalities? An Exploratory Study with a Focus on India
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Gender Budgeting in Selected Countries
		Bangladesh
		Rwanda
		Mexico
		Sri Lanka
		China
	Gender Budgeting in India
		Background
	Taking a Closer Look at the India Gender Budget
	Gender Budgeting at the State Level
	Analysis of India’s Gender Budgeting Initiative
	Summary and Conclusions
	References
10 Claiming as Equals: Journey of Women Leaders
	Abstract
	Background
	Women’s Political Participation in South Asia and India
		Frameworks for Enhancing Women’s Political Participation and Leadership
		Context
		Progressive Policies to Shift Gender Norms in Rural Bihar
		Leadership Model for Rural Elected Women Representatives
		Core Elements of the Model
	Pathway to Success: Evolution of EWRs as Effective Leaders and Catalysts Ensuring Accountability for Basic Services
		What Worked
		Impact on Self
		Impact on Governance
		Support Needed for Engagement at Higher Levels
		Challenges to Success
		Caste Matters
	COVID and Women’s Leadership
		Growing Evidence on Women Leaders’ Effectiveness
	Concluding Comments
	References
11 Gender and Climate Change: Maximizing Women’s Potential to Lead on Climate Mitigation and Adaptation
	Abstract
	Introduction
	What is Climate Change?
	What are Some Factors that Impact Vulnerability to Climate Change?
	Climate Impacts
	How are Women Impacted by Climate Change?
	Climate Change and Food Security
	Recommendations
		Agriculture and Food Security
		Disaster Preparedness
	Conclusion
	References
Gendered Violence: Continuing Barrier
12 “How Can I Tell My Mom Such a Story?” Sexual Violence Against Children in Kenya
	Abstract
	Background
		Materials and Methods
			Data
			Analysis
	Ethical Considerations
	Findings
		Presumption
		Shame
		Fear
		Finding Voice
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
13 Casting Gender in Violence Against Dalit Women: Perpetrators’ Impunity and Constitutional Responsibility of the State
	Abstract
	Background
	Crime Against Women
		Global Scenario
	Indian Scenario—Persisting Impunity
	Social Identity-Based Violence
		Triggers of Crime
	Crime Against Dalits and Sexual Crimes Against Dalit Women
	Rise in Atrocities on Dalits: Pitfalls in Safeguards
		Crime Against Dalit Women and the Political Environment
	Cinematic Portrayal of Sexual Crimes
	Pandemics and Dalits in History
		Media and Reporting
		Vulnerability Versus Assertion: State Responsibility
	Alternative Perspective
	References
Women’s Health and Self-care: Corner Stones for Gender Equality
14 Respectful Maternity Care: A Cornerstone for Improving Maternal Health
	Abstract
	Background
	Mistreatment and Its Association with Maternal Mortality
	Demand for Respectful Maternity Care
	Causes Behind Disrespect and Abuse
	Gender and Disrespect and Abuse
	What Can Be Done?
		Policy Framework
		Resources
		Capacity Building
		Community
	References
15 Viewing Women and HIV Through a Gender Lens—A Glimpse into the Asia Region
	Abstract
	Why Should Gender Matter for Women and HIV/AIDS
	Women and HIV Discourse: Historical Context
	HIV Epidemic Trends Among Women and Girls in Asia
	Why are Women Particularly Vulnerable to HIV?
		Impact of HIV on Women and Girls
	Impact of COVID-19 on Women and Girls
	Policies, Commitments, and Targets Related to Women and HIV
	Gender-Integrated HIV Programs in the Region
	Conclusion and the Way Forward
	References
16 Gender Dimensions of Self-care for Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights in Nigeria
	Abstract
	Background
	Objectives
	Methodology
	Self-care for Sexual and Reproductive Health in Nigeria: A Literature Review
	Research Results
		Awareness About the Importance of Sexual and Reproductive Health
	Knowledge, Practice, Accessibility, and Use of Self-care Products
		Contraceptives and Lubricants
		Self-testing and Self-management
		The Influence of Gender
		Physical and Sexual Violence
		Abortion
		Self-care During the COVID-19 Pandemic
			Health Care at Hospitals and at Home
			Mental Health Concerns and Violence
	Discussion
	Concluding Comments
	Acknowledgements
	References
Transforming Gender Relations
17 The Missing Piece: The Role of Men in Transforming Gender Relations in South Asia in Post-Covid Times
	Abstract
	Sustainable Development in the Context of COVID
	Men, Gender, and COVID
	Re-imagining Gender Equality and Leaving no One Behind
	Understanding Men and Masculinities
	Men and Sustainable Change
	References
18 Ladka Ladki Ek Barabar? Gender Ideology Among Young Adolescents Through Adulthood in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Overview of Gender and Gender Role Ideology
		Influence of Gender Ideology on Societal Outcomes
		Gender Norms in India
	Theoretical Frameworks of Intersectionality and Life Course
	Research Questions, Data, and Methods
		Research Questions
		Data
		Measure of Gender Ideology
		Independent Variables
	Methodology
	Results
	Discussion
	References
19 Learning Without Fear: Supporting Inclusive Education for Sexual and Gender Minorities
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Nature and Prevalence of Bullying and Violence
	Consequences of Bullying
	Grievance Redressal Mechanisms
	Implications for Policies and Practice
	Conclusion and Recommendations
	References
20 Engaging with Omission: Promoting Concern for Gender and Sexuality Diverse People in SDG 5 and Beyond
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Gender and Sexuality Diversity: A Key Omission
	Gender and Sexuality Diversity: Continuing Change
	The Case for Inclusion
		Barriers to Inclusion
	What Can and Should Be Done?
	References
21 Social Determinants of Sexual Health Among Sexual and Gender Diverse People in South Asia: Lessons Learned from India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan
	Abstract
	Introduction
	HIV Situation Among SGDP in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan
		India
		Bangladesh
		Nepal
		Pakistan
	Factors Affecting Adherence to Available Treatment Regimes
		Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Adherence
		Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis
		Social and Structural Determinants of Sexual Health Among SGD Populations
	Gender Affirmation as an Important SDoH for SGDP
		Plurality and Diversity in Gender and Sexual Orientation Identities and Expressions
		Gender Diversity
		Plurality in Sexual Orientation
	Lessons Learned and Moving Forward
	References
22 The Effect of Intersectional Forces on Gender-Affirming Surgeries in the United States
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Demographic Trends in TGGD Identities in the United States
		Intersectionality
		Health Disparities Faced by TGGD People
	Gender Affirmation
		Barriers to Gender-Affirming Surgeries
	Provider Perspectives
	Setting Expectations
	Ethical and Legal Considerations
	Surgical and Mental Health Outcomes After Gender Affirmation Surgery
	A Case Study: Development of University Hospitals LGBTQ+ and Gender Care Services to Address the Regional Needs of Gender-Affirming Clinical Services in Ohio (http://www.uhhospitals.org/services/gender-care-services)
	Conclusions and Recommendations
	Appendix
	References
23 Women’s Roles in Bangladesh’s Development: A Review of Evidence 50 Years Since Independence
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Has Bangladesh’s Development Policy Been Inclusive of Women?
		Women as Agents of Development
		Women as Target Beneficiaries
		Education
		Labor Force Participation
	Do the Trends to Date Amount to Women’s Empowerment?
	Is Women’s Inclusion Essential to Bangladesh’s Development Success?
	Conclusion
	References
Commentary
24 The Costs of Ignoring Gender
	Abstract
	Introduction
		A Historical Perspective
		Were We Mopping the Floor with the Tap On?
		Barriers to the Creation of Human Capital
		Have We Ignored Male Responsibility in Sexual Health?
		The Cost-Benefit of Empowering Women
		Gender and Sexual Health
		High Cost for Health Systems
		Empowering Women to Reduce These Costs
	Women’s Employment in the Informal Sector: The Primary Sector
		The Costs of Ignoring Gender in Agriculture
		The Cost-Benefit of Empowering Women
		Shaping the Future of Women in Agriculture in a Digitalized World
		Winds of Change: Women’s Employment in the Corporate Sector
		Is the Corporate Sector in India Gender Inclusive?
		Making Gender Inclusion Compulsory
		Has the Needle Moved in India?
		Representation of Women in the Indian Information Technology Industry
		Looking Forward
	References