Toxicological profiles - Chromium

TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR CHROMIUM......Page 1
CONTENTS......Page 13
DISCLAIMER......Page 2
UPDATE STATEMENT......Page 3
FOREWORD......Page 5
QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS......Page 7
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 9
PEER REVIEW......Page 11
LIST OF FIGURES......Page 18
LIST OF TABLES......Page 20
1.1 WHAT IS CHROMIUM?......Page 22
1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO CHROMIUM WHEN IT ENTERS THE ENVIRONMENT?......Page 23
1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO CHROMIUM?......Page 24
1.4 HOW CAN CHROMIUM ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY?......Page 26
1.5 HOW CAN CHROMIUM AFFECT MY HEALTH?......Page 27
1.6 HOW CAN CHROMIUM AFFECT CHILDREN?......Page 30
1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO CHROMIUM?......Page 31
1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?......Page 32
1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?......Page 34
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 35
2.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE......Page 36
2.2.1.1 Death......Page 38
2.2.1.2 Systemic Effects......Page 39
2.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 73
2.2.1.4 Neurological Effects......Page 75
2.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects......Page 76
2.2.1.7 Genotoxic Effects......Page 78
2.2.1.8 Cancer......Page 80
2.2.2.1 Death......Page 98
2.2.2.2 Systemic Effects......Page 100
2.2.2.4 Neurological Effects......Page 125
2.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects......Page 126
2.2.2.6 Developmental Effects......Page 130
2.2.2.7 Genotoxic Effects......Page 133
2.2.2.8 Cancer......Page 134
2.2.3.1 Death......Page 135
2.2.3.2 Systemic Effects......Page 136
2.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 148
2.3 TOXICOKINETICS......Page 151
2.3.1.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 152
2.3.1.2 Oral Exposure......Page 155
2.3.1.3 Dermal Exposure......Page 160
2.3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 161
2.3.2.2 Oral Exposure......Page 163
2.3.2.3 Dermal Exposure......Page 167
2.3.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure......Page 168
2.3.3 Metabolism......Page 171
2.3.4.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 177
2.3.4.2 Oral Exposure......Page 178
2.3.4.4 Other Routes of Exposure......Page 182
2.3.5 Physiologically based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models......Page 184
2.3.5.2 Chromium PBPK Model Comparison.......Page 186
2.3.5.3 Discussion of Models.......Page 189
2.4 MECHANISMS OF ACTION......Page 196
2.4.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms......Page 197
2.4.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity......Page 199
2.5 RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH......Page 201
2.6 ENDOCRINE DISRUPTION......Page 252
2.7 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY......Page 253
2.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT......Page 257
2.8.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Chromium......Page 258
2.8.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Chromium......Page 267
2.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS......Page 268
2.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE......Page 271
2.11 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS......Page 272
2.11.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure......Page 273
2.11.2 Reducing Body Burden......Page 275
2.11.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects......Page 277
2.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Chromium......Page 280
2.12.2 Identification of Data Needs......Page 285
2.12.3 Ongoing Studies......Page 300
3.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES......Page 303
4.1 PRODUCTION......Page 318
4.2 IMPORT/EXPORT......Page 323
4.4 DISPOSAL......Page 324
5.1 OVERVIEW......Page 329
5.2.1 Air......Page 334
5.2.2 Water......Page 340
5.2.3 Soil......Page 342
5.3.1 Transport and Partitioning......Page 343
5.3.2.1 Air......Page 345
5.3.2.2 Water......Page 346
5.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil......Page 347
5.4.1 Air......Page 348
5.4.2 Water......Page 350
5.4.3 Sediment and Soil......Page 351
5.4.4 Other Environmental Media......Page 352
5.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE......Page 354
5.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN......Page 359
5.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES......Page 360
5.8.1 Identification of Data Needs......Page 363
5.8.2 Ongoing Studies......Page 368
6.1 BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES......Page 369
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES......Page 374
6.3.1 Identification of Data Needs......Page 380
6.3.2 Ongoing Studies......Page 381
7. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES......Page 383
8. REFERENCES......Page 399
Case-Control Study......Page 476
Genetoxicity......Page 477
Malformations......Page 478
Pesticide......Page 479
Reference Dose......Page 480
Threshold Limit Value......Page 481
Xenobiotic......Page 482
ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS......Page 484
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET......Page 486
USER'S GUIDE......Page 492
ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS......Page 500