Toxicological profiles - Aluminum

TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR ALUMINUM......Page 1
CONTENTS......Page 12
DISCLAIMER......Page 2
UPDATE STATEMENT......Page 3
FOREWORD......Page 4
QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS......Page 6
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 8
PEER REVIEW......Page 10
LIST OF FIGURES......Page 16
LIST OF TABLES......Page 18
1.1 WHAT IS ALUMINUM?......Page 20
1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO ALUMINUM WHEN IT ENTERS THE ENVIRONMENT?......Page 21
1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO ALUMINUM?......Page 22
1.5 HOW CAN ALUMINUM AFFECT MY HEALTH?......Page 24
1.6 HOW CAN ALUMINUM AFFECT CHILDREN?......Page 25
1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO ALUMINUM?......Page 26
1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?......Page 27
1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?......Page 28
2.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE......Page 30
2.2.1.1 Death......Page 32
2.2.1.2 Systemic Effects......Page 33
2.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 47
2.2.1.4 Neurological Effects......Page 48
2.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects......Page 49
2.2.1.8 Cancer......Page 50
2.2.2 Oral Exposure......Page 52
2.2.2.1 Death......Page 69
2.2.2.2 Systemic Effects......Page 70
2.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 80
2.2.2.4 Neurological Effects......Page 81
2.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects......Page 89
2.2.2.6 Developmental Effects......Page 91
2.2.2.7 Genotoxic Effects......Page 95
2.2.3.1 Death......Page 96
2.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 97
2.2.3.8 Cancer......Page 101
2.3 TOXICOKINETICS......Page 102
2.3.1.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 103
2.3.1.2 Oral Exposure......Page 104
2.3.1.3 Dermal Exposure......Page 107
2.3.2 Distribution......Page 108
2.3.2.2 Oral Exposure......Page 109
2.3.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure......Page 112
2.3.4.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 114
2.3.4.2 Oral Exposure......Page 115
2.3.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models......Page 116
2.4.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms......Page 118
2.4.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity......Page 121
2.4.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations......Page 124
2.5 RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH......Page 125
Systemic Effects......Page 133
2.6 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY......Page 145
2.7 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT......Page 151
2.8 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS......Page 152
2.10 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS......Page 154
2.11 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE......Page 155
2.11.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Aluminum......Page 156
2.11.3 Identification of Data Needs......Page 158
2.11.4 Ongoing Studies......Page 167
3.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES......Page 170
4.1 PRODUCTION......Page 191
4.2 IMPORT/EXPORT......Page 195
4.3 USE......Page 197
4.4 DISPOSAL......Page 199
5.1 OVERVIEW......Page 201
5.2.1 Air......Page 206
5.2.2 Water......Page 208
5.3.1 Transport and Partitioning......Page 210
5.3.2.2 Water......Page 216
5.4.1 Air......Page 218
5.4.2 Water......Page 219
5.4.3 Sediment and Soil......Page 223
5.4.4 Other Environmental Media......Page 224
5.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE......Page 235
5.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN......Page 242
5.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES......Page 247
5.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE......Page 248
5.8.1 Identification of Data Needs......Page 249
5.8.2 Ongoing Studies......Page 252
6.1 BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES......Page 258
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES......Page 264
6.3.1 Identification of Data Needs......Page 268
6.3.2 Ongoing Studies......Page 270
7. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES......Page 271
8. REFERENCES......Page 289
Ceiling Value......Page 365
Immunological Effects......Page 366
Necropsy......Page 367
Prospective Study......Page 368
Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL)......Page 369
Xenobiotic......Page 370
ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVEL AND WORKSHEETS......Page 371
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEETS......Page 373
USER'S GUIDE......Page 375
ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS......Page 383