Thyroid, Obesity and Metabolism: Exploring Links Between Thyroid Function, Obesity, Metabolism and Lifestyle

Contents
Part I: Thyroid
	Chapter 1: Iodine Deficiency and Thyroid Function
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Iodine Absorption and Metabolism
			1.2.1 Iodine Requirements and Tolerable Upper Levels
			1.2.2 Thyroidal Adaptation to Iodine Deficiency
		1.3 Iodine Deficiency in Pregnancy and Fetal Brain
			1.3.1 Maternal Thyroid Adaptation to Iodine Deficiency
			1.3.2 Fetal Consequences of Maternal Iodine Deficiency
			1.3.3 Iodine Supplementation During Pregnancy
			1.3.4 Iodine and Lactating Mothers
		1.4 Iodine Deficiency in Infancy and Childhood
		1.5 Iodine Deficiency in Adults and Elderly
		1.6 Prevention of Iodine Deficiency Disorders
			1.6.1 Monitoring of Iodine Prophylaxis Programs
		References
	Chapter 2: Classification of Thyroid Diseases
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Hypothyroidism
			2.2.1 Autoimmune Thyroiditis
			2.2.2 Subclinical Hypothyroidism
			2.2.3 Iodine-Induced Hypothyroidism
			2.2.4 Drug-Induced Hypothyroidism
			2.2.5 Congenital Hypothyroidism
			2.2.6 Central Hypothyroidism
		2.3 Hyperthyroidism
			2.3.1 Graves’ Disease
			2.3.2 Toxic Nodular Disease
			2.3.3 Thyroiditis
			2.3.4 Drug-Induced Hyperthyroidism
			2.3.5 Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism
			2.3.6 Subclinical Hyperthyroidism
		2.4 Thyroid Nodular Diseases
			2.4.1 Follicular-Derived Thyroid Cancers
				2.4.1.1 Differentiated Thyroid Cancers
				2.4.1.2 Anaplastic Thyroid Cancers
			2.4.2 Neuroendocrine C-Cell-Derived Thyroid Cancer
				2.4.2.1 Medullary Thyroid Cancers
		References
	Chapter 3: Techniques to Study Thyroid Function and Morphology
		3.1 The Role of Ultrasound
		3.2 Normal Anatomy
		3.3 Diffuse Thyroid Pathology
		3.4 Nodular Thyroid Pathology
			3.4.1 Hyperplastic Adenomatous Nodule
		3.5 Sonoelastography
		3.6 CEUS
		3.7 Parathyroid Glands and Lymphnodes
		Bibliography
	Chapter 4: Overt Hyperthyroidism and Subclinical Hyperthyroidism: Who and How to Treat
		4.1 Hyperthyroidism
			4.1.1 Diagnosis
			4.1.2 Treatment
				4.1.2.1 GD
					ATD
						ATD and Side Effects
				4.1.2.2 Choice of Treatment
					ATD
					Radioiodine
					Surgery
					Overview
		4.2 Multinodular Toxic Goiter (MTG): Toxic Adenoma
		4.3 Thyrotoxic Storm
		4.4 Hyperthyroidism and GO
		4.5 Amiodarone-Induced Thyrotoxicosis (AIT)
		4.6 Hyperthyroidism and Pregnancy
			4.6.1 Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (SH)
		Bibliography
	Chapter 5: Minimally Invasive Treatments of Benign Thyroid Nodules: Techniques and Results
		5.1 Background
		5.2 Indications
		5.3 Techniques
		5.4 Clinical Applications
		References
Part II: Obesity
	Chapter 6: Obesity: Classification and Diagnosis
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Definition and Diagnosis of Obesity
			6.2.1 Body Mass Index
			6.2.2 Adiposity
		6.3 Classification of Obesity
			6.3.1 The Metabolically Unhealthy Obesity (MUO)
			6.3.2 The Metabolically Healthy Obesity (MHO)
			6.3.3 The Metabolically Obese Normal Weight (MONW) Phenotype
			6.3.4 Normal Weight Obese (NWO) Syndrome
			6.3.5 Sarcopenic Obesity (SO)
		6.4 Secondary Causes of Obesity
			6.4.1 Endocrine Causes
				6.4.1.1 Cushing’s Syndrome
				6.4.1.2 Hypothyroidism
				6.4.1.3 Polycystic Ovaries Syndrome (PCOS)
				6.4.1.4 Growth Hormone Deficiency
				6.4.1.5 Hypogonadism
				6.4.1.6 Pseudohypoparathyroidism
				6.4.1.7 Hypothalamic Disorders
			6.4.2 Genetic Causes
				6.4.2.1 Leptin and Leptin Receptor Deficiency
				6.4.2.2 POMC Deficiency
				6.4.2.3 MCR4 Deficiency
				6.4.2.4 Prader–Willi Syndrome
			6.4.3 Iatrogenic Causes
				6.4.3.1 Medication
			6.4.4 Eating Disorders
		References
	Chapter 7: Complications of Obesity
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Metabolic Syndrome
			7.2.1 Altered Glucose and Lipid Metabolism
			7.2.2 Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Fatty Liver Disease
			7.2.3 Elevated Blood Pressure
			7.2.4 Metabolically Healthy and Unhealthy Obesity
		7.3 Vascular System
			7.3.1 Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Disease
			7.3.2 Prothrombotic State
		7.4 Respiratory System
		7.5 Gastrointestinal System
		7.6 Kidney and Urinary System Disorders
			7.6.1 Chronic Kidney Disease
			7.6.2 Other Disorders
		7.7 Musculoskeletal System
			7.7.1 Bone and Joint Diseases
			7.7.2 Sarcopenic Obesity
		7.8 Reproductive System
		7.9 Neurological and Psychological Disorders
		7.10 Nutritional Deficiencies
		7.11 Cancer
		7.12 Immunity and Infections
		7.13 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 8: Techniques to Study Metabolism
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Direct Calorimetry
		8.3 Indirect Calorimetry
		8.4 Doubly Labelled Water
		8.5 Accelerometer/Metabolic Holter
		8.6 In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)
			8.6.1 1H-MRS
			8.6.2 13C-MRS
			8.6.3 31P-MRS
		References
	Chapter 9: Obesity: Medical and Surgical Treatment
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Medical Treatment
			9.2.1 Pharmacological Treatment Options for Obesity Care
				9.2.1.1 FDA-Approved Medications for Weight Management in the Short-Term
				9.2.1.2 FDA-Approved Medications for Weight Management in the Long Term
					Orlistat
						Efficacy
						Effect on Body Weight
						Effect on Metabolism
						Safety and Adverse Effects
					Phentermine/Topiramate
						Efficacy
						Effect on Body Weight
						Effect on Metabolism
						Safety and Adverse Effects
					Lorcaserin
						Efficacy
						Effect on Body Weight
						Effect on Metabolism
						Safety and Adverse Effects
					Bupropion/Naltrexone
						Efficacy
						Effect on Body Weight
						Effect on Metabolism
						Safety and Adverse Effects
					Liraglutide 3.0
						Efficacy
						Effect on Body Weight
						Effect on Metabolism
						Safety and Adverse Effects
			9.2.2 Off-Label Medications for Weight Control
				9.2.2.1 Metformin
				9.2.2.2 Topiramate
				9.2.2.3 Zonisamide
				9.2.2.4 Bupropion
				9.2.2.5 Pramlintide
			9.2.3 Future Anti-Obesity Targets for Obesity Pharmacotherapy
			9.2.4 Conclusion
		9.3 Surgical Treatment
			9.3.1 Bariatric and Metabolic Surgery (BMS)
			9.3.2 Patient Selection
			9.3.3 Surgical Procedures
				9.3.3.1 Sleeve Gastrectomy (SG) (Fig. 9.1)
				9.3.3.2 Roux-En-Y Gastric Bypass (RYGB) (Fig. 9.2)
				9.3.3.3 Adjustable Gastric Band (AGB) (Fig. 9.3)
				9.3.3.4 Biliopancreatic Diversion with Duodenal Switch (BPD-DS) (Fig. 9.4)
				9.3.3.5 One Anastomosis Gastric Bypass (OAGB) (Fig. 9.6)
			9.3.4 Metabolic Surgery: The Manipulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract to Condition the Brain
		References
Part III: Thyroid, Obesity and Metabolism
	Chapter 10: Thyroid and Obesity
		10.1 Obesity and Autoimmune Thyroid Disease
		10.2 Obesity and Thyroid Cancer
		10.3 Thyroid Ultrasound Examination in Obese Patients
		10.4 Adipocytes and Thyroid Function
		10.5 Thermogenesis and Thyroid Hormones
		10.6 Thyroid and Ghrelin
		References
	Chapter 11: Thyroid Dysfunction and Metabolism: Diagnosis and Follow-Up
		11.1 Background
		11.2 Measurement of Resting Energy Expenditure (REE)
		11.3 The Role of Indirect Calorimetry (IC) in Weight-Reduction Interventions
		11.4 Thyroid Hormones and Energy Expenditure
		11.5 The Role of Indirect Calorimetry (IC) in the Treatment of Overt Thyroid Dysfunction
		11.6 The Role of Indirect Calorimetry (IC) in the Treatment of Subclinical Thyroid Disease
		References
	Chapter 12: Muscle Tissue in Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism
		12.1 Skeletal Muscle Physiology
		12.2 Thyroid Hormones and Muscle Tissue
		12.3 Hypothyroidism and Muscle Tissue
		12.4 Hyperthyroidism and Muscle Tissue
		References
	Chapter 13: Thyroid Function and Effects on Cardiovascular System
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 TH and Hyperlipidemia
			13.2.1 TH, Vasculature, and Blood Pressure
			13.2.2 TH and Thrombogenesis
		13.3 Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Thyroid Hormone Action
			13.3.1 Responses Dependent on T3 Binding to Thyroid Receptors (TRs) Localized in the Nucleus (Genomic Effects)
			13.3.2 Signaling through TRs Localized in the Cytoplasm or Associated with the Plasma Membrane (Non-genomic Effects Impacting on Transmembrane and Intracellular Ion Flux)
		13.4 Cardiovascular Consequences of Overt Hyperthyroidism (OHyper) and Subclinical Hyperthyroidism (SHyper)
			13.4.1 SHyper
			13.4.2 Treatment of OHyper and SHyper
		13.5 Cardiovascular Consequences of Overt Hypothyroidism (OHypo) and Subclinical Hypothyroidism (SHypo)
			13.5.1 SHypo
			13.5.2 Treatment of OHypo and SHypo
		13.6 TH and Cardiovascular Consequences of Heart Failure (Low T3 Syndrome)
		References
	Chapter 14: Obesity, Adipokines and Thyroid Dysfunction
		14.1 Obesity and Adipose Tissue
		14.2 Adipokines
			14.2.1 Leptin
			14.2.2 Adiponectin
			14.2.3 Resistin
			14.2.4 Vaspin
			14.2.5 Visfatin
		14.3 Adipokines and Thyroid Dysfunction in Humans
			14.3.1 Thyroiditis
			14.3.2 Hypothyroidism
			14.3.3 Hyperthyroidism
		14.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 15: Adipokines and Thyroid Malignancies
		15.1 Thyroid Cancer
			15.1.1 Epidemiology, Histological Classification, and Molecular Alterations
			15.1.2 Diagnosis, Treatments, and Follow-Up
		15.2 Thyroid Cancer: Association with Adipokines and Metabolism
			15.2.1 Insulin
			15.2.2 Adipokines
		References
Part IV: Clinical Cases
	Chapter 16: Clinical Cases
		16.1 Clinical Case 1
		16.2 Clinical Case 2
		16.3 Clinical Case 3
		References