The World Atlas of Language Structures

Articles and Pronouns......Page 5
K. Other......Page 9
Acknowledgements......Page 11
List of Contributors x......Page 13
INTRODUCTION......Page 17
A. Phonology......Page 25
1 Consonant Inventories......Page 27
2 Vowel Quality Inventories......Page 31
3 Consonant–Vowel Ratio......Page 35
4 Voicing in Plosives and Fricatives......Page 39
5 Voicing and Gaps in Plosive Systems......Page 43
6 Uvular Consonants......Page 47
7 Glottalized Consonants......Page 51
8 Lateral Consonants......Page 55
9 The Velar Nasal ( y)......Page 59
10 Vowel Nasalization......Page 63
11 Front Rounded Vowels......Page 67
12 Syllable Structure......Page 71
13 Tone......Page 75
14 Fixed Stress Locations......Page 79
15 Weight-Sensitive Stress......Page 83
16 Weight Factors in Weight-Sensitive Stress Systems......Page 87
17 Rhythm Types......Page 91
18 Absence of Common Consonants......Page 95
19 Presence of Uncommon Consonants......Page 99
20 Fusion of Selected Inflectional Formatives......Page 103
21 Exponence of Selected Inflectional Formatives......Page 107
22 Inflectional Synthesis of the Verb......Page 111
23 Locus of Marking in the Clause......Page 115
24 Locus of Marking in Possessive Noun Phrases......Page 119
25 Locus of Marking: Whole-language Typology......Page 123
26 Prefixing versus Suffixing in Inflectional 
Morphology......Page 127
27 Reduplication......Page 131
28 Case Syncretism......Page 135
29 Syncretism in Verbal Person/Number Marking......Page 139
30 Number of Genders......Page 143
31 Sex-based and Non-sex-based Gender Systems......Page 147
32 Systems of Gender Assignment......Page 151
33 Coding of Nominal Plurality......Page 155
34 Occurrence of Nominal Plurality......Page 159
35 Plurality in Independent Personal Pronouns......Page 163
36 The Associative Plural......Page 167
37 Definite Articles......Page 171
38 Indefinite Articles......Page 175
39 Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Independent......Page 179
40 Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Verbal Inflection......Page 181
41 Distance Contrasts in Demonstratives......Page 187
42 Pronominal and Adnominal Demonstratives......Page 191
43 Third-Person Pronouns and Demonstratives......Page 195
44 Gender Distinctions in Independent Personal 
Pronouns......Page 199
45 Politeness Distinctions in Pronouns......Page 203
46 Indefinite Pronouns......Page 207
47 Intensifiers and Reflexive Pronouns......Page 211
48 Person Marking on Adpositions......Page 215
49 Number of Cases......Page 219
50 Asymmetrical Case Marking......Page 223
51 Position of Case Affixes......Page 227
52 Comitatives and Instrumentals......Page 231
65–68 Tense and Aspect......Page 7
53 Ordinal Numerals......Page 235
54 Distributive Numerals......Page 239
55 Numeral Classifiers......Page 243
56 Conjunctions and Universal Quantifiers......Page 247
57 Position of Pronominal Possessive Affixes......Page 251
58 Obligatory Possessive Inflection......Page 255
59 Possessive Classification......Page 259
60 Genitives, Adjectives, and Relative Clauses......Page 263
61 Adjectives without Nouns......Page 267
62 Action Nominal Constructions......Page 271
63 Noun Phrase Conjunction......Page 275
64 Nominal and Verbal Conjunction......Page 279
65 Perfective/Imperfective Aspect......Page 283
66 The Past Tense......Page 285
68 The Perfect......Page 287
69 Position of Tense-Aspect Affixes......Page 299
70 The Morphological Imperative......Page 303
71 The Prohibitive......Page 307
72 Imperative-Hortative Systems......Page 311
73 The Optative......Page 315
74 Situational Possibility......Page 319
75 Epistemic Possibility......Page 323
76 Overlap between Situational and Epistemic 
Modal Marking......Page 327
77 Semantic Distinctions of Evidentiality......Page 331
78 Coding of Evidentiality......Page 335
79 Suppletion According to Tense and Aspect......Page 339
80 Verbal Number and Suppletion......Page 343
81 Order of Subject, Object, and Verb......Page 347
82 Order of Subject and Verb......Page 351
83 Order of Object and Verb......Page 355
84 Order of Object, Oblique, and Verb......Page 359
85 Order of Adposition and Noun Phrase......Page 363
86 Order of Genitive and Noun......Page 367
87 Order of Adjective and Noun......Page 371
88 Order of Demonstrative and Noun......Page 375
89 Order of Numeral and Noun......Page 379
90 Order of Relative Clause and Noun......Page 383
91 Order of Degree Word and Adjecti......Page 387
92 Position of Polar Question Particles......Page 391
93 Position of Interrogative Phrases in Content 
Questions......Page 395
94 Order of Adverbial Subordinator and Clause......Page 399
95 Relationship between the Order of Object and Ver
and the Order of Adposition and Noun Phrase......Page 403
96 Relationship between the Order of Object and 
Verb and the Order of Relative Clause and Noun......Page 407
97 Relationship between the Order of Object and Verb and the Order of Adjective and Noun......Page 411
98–99 Alignment of Case Marking......Page 415
100 Alignment of Verbal Person Marking......Page 423
101 Expression of Pronominal Subjects......Page 427
102 Verbal Person Marking......Page 431
103 Third-Person Zero of Verbal Person Marking......Page 435
104 Order of Person Markers on the Verb......Page 439
105 Ditransitive Constructions: The Verb ‘Give’......Page 443
Valence and Voice......Page 445
106 Reciprocal Constructions......Page 447
107 Passive Constructions......Page 451
108 Antipassive Constructions......Page 455
109 Applicative Constructions......Page 459
110 Periphrastic Causative Constructions......Page 463
111 Nonperiphrastic Causative Constructions......Page 467
112 Negative Morphemes......Page 471
113 Symmetric and Asymmetric Standard Negation......Page 475
114 Subtypes of Asymmetric Standard Negation......Page 479
115 Negative Indefinite Pronouns and Predicate 
Negation......Page 483
116 Polar Questions......Page 487
117 Predicative Possession......Page 491
118 Predicative Adjectives......Page 495
119 Nominal and Locational Predication......Page 499
120 Zero Copula for Predicate Nominals......Page 503
121 Comparative Constructions......Page 507
H. Complex Sentences......Page 509
122–123 Relativization Strategies......Page 511
124 ‘Want’ Complement Clauses......Page 519
125 Purpose Clauses......Page 523
126 ‘When’ Clauses......Page 527
127 Reason Clauses......Page 531
128 Utterance Complement Clauses......Page 535
129 Hand and Arm......Page 539
130 Finger and Hand......Page 543
131 Numeral Bases......Page 547
132–135 Colour Terms......Page 551
136–137 Personal Pronouns......Page 563
138 Tea......Page 571
J. Sign Languages......Page 575
139 Irregular Negatives in Sign Languages......Page 577
140 Question Particles in Sign Languages......Page 581
141 Writing Systems......Page 585
142 Paralinguistic Usages of Clicks......Page 589
References......Page 661
Genealogical Maps......Page 593
Genealogical Language List......Page 601
Language Name Index......Page 681
WALS Code Index......Page 701