The Tokyo Tribunal : perspectives on law, history and memory

Foreword by the Series Editor
Preface by the Editors
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
List of Abbreviations
Part I: Introductions
1. Towards a Fuller Appreciation of the Tokyo Tribunal
	1.1. Context of the Book
	1.2. Origins and Purpose of the Book
	1.3. Structure of the Book
2. Opening Reflections: Tokyoberg
	2.1. Introduction
	2.2. Reorienting the Field
	2.3. Coming in from the Margins of History
	2.4. The Hidden Trials
Part II: Foundations and Facets of the Trial
3. The Tokyo and Nuremberg International Military Tribunal Trials: A Comparative Study
	3.1. Introduction
	3.2. Background
		3.2.1. The Tokyo Trial
		3.2.2. The Nuremberg Trial
		3.2.3. The London Conference
	3.3. Proceedings
		3.3.1. The Nuremberg Trial
		3.3.2. The Tokyo Trial
	3.4. Conclusion
4. The Tokyo Tribunal: A Transcultural Endeavour
	4.1. Introduction
	4.2. Selecting Judges
	4.3. Colonial Endeavours
	4.4. Structural Difficulties
	4.5. Team Spirit
	4.6. Fields of Friction
	4.7. Conclusion
5. The Tokyo Tribunal’s Legal Origins and Contributions to International Jurisprudence as Illustrated by Its Treatment of Sexual Violence
	5.1. Introduction
	5.2. Accounting for Legal Scholars’ Relative Neglect
	5.3. An Echo of Nuremberg and an American Show
		5.3.1. Early Planning for Post-war Prosecutions
		5.3.2. American Leadership in London and Domination in Tokyo
		5.3.3. Legal Frameworks: Derivation and Difference
	5.4. Reconsidering Tokyo’s Legal Legacy
	5.5. Conclusion
6. Glimpses of Women at the Tokyo Tribunal
	6.1. Introduction
	6.2. A Tribunal in the Shadows
	6.3. Amid New Visibility, Women’s Muted Roles
	6.4. Figuring Women into Tokyo Trial Narratives
		6.4.1. Elaine B. Fischel
		6.4.2. Grace Kanode Llewellyn
		6.4.3. Virginia Bowman and Lucille Brunner
		6.4.4. Bettie Renner
		6.4.5. Eleanor Jackson
		6.4.6. Coomee Strooker-Dantra
		6.4.7. Helen Grigware Lambert
	6.5. Conclusion
7. Trial and Error in the Interpreting System and Procedures at the Tokyo Trial
	7.1. Introduction
	7.2. Lessons from Class B/C Trials: Three-Tier Interpreting System
		7.2.1. Use of Local Translators and Interpreters During the Preparation Stage
		7.2.2. Learning from Failures at Class B/C Trials
		7.2.3. Japanese Interpreters Working for the Former Enemies
		7.2.4. Checking Mechanism
		7.2.5. Monitors and Language Arbitration Board
	7.3. Improvising Procedural Rules on Interpreting
		7.3.1. Untrained Interpreters and Inexperienced Users of Their Services
		7.3.2. Court Expectations vs. Interpreter Limitations
		7.3.3. Relay Interpreting
		7.3.4. Belated Inquiry to Nuremberg
		7.3.5. Use of a Third Language by Prosecutors
		7.3.6. Educating the Users of Interpreting Services
	7.4. Tokyo, Nuremberg and Beyond
		7.4.1. Connection to Nuremberg?
		7.4.2. Relevance to Present-Day International Criminal Justice
	7.5. Conclusion
Part III: Dynamics and Dimensions of the Trial
8. Individual Responsibility at the Tokyo Trial
	8.1. Introduction
	8.2. The Accused
	8.3. The System of Japanese Government
	8.4. Individual Responsibility for War Crimes
	8.5. The Case of Shigemitsu
	8.6. Conclusion
9. ‘Conventional War Crimes’: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East and the Ill-Treatment of Prisoners of War and Civilian Internees
	9.1. Introduction
	9.2. Indictment
	9.3. Proceedings
	9.4. Defence
	9.5. Judgment
	9.6. Conclusion
10. Nuremberg, Tokyo and the Crime of Aggression: An Intertwined and Still Unfolding Legacy
	10.1. Introduction
	10.2. Early Perceptions of the Trials
	10.3. The Ex Post Facto Issue: The IMT Makes Its Peace with Crimes Against Peace
	10.4. The IMTFE Plays ‘Follow the Leader’
	10.5. The Ex Post Facto Issue: Not All Are Convinced, Nor Should They Be
	10.6. Jackson at the IMT: The Push for Accountability
	10.7. Post-Nuremberg: Optimism, Expectation and Ambivalence
	10.8. The ICC Finally Takes the Baton, a Slippery One
	10.9. Final Observations
11. Substantive Law Issues in the Tokyo Judgment: From Facts to Law?
	11.1. Introduction
	11.2. Conspiracy
	11.3. The Crime of Aggression
	11.4. War Crimes
	11.5. Superior Responsibility
	11.6. Conclusion
12. The “President’s Judgment” and Its Significance for the Tokyo Trial
	12.1. Introduction
	12.2. Webb on Crimes Against Peace and Aggression
	12.3. Webb’s Individual Factual Findings and Verdicts on Crimes Against Peace: Case Studies
		12.3.1. The Case of Hata
		12.3.2. The Case of Hiranuma
		12.3.3. The Case of Hirota
		12.3.4. The Case of Kimura
		12.3.5. The Case of Shigemitsu
		12.3.6. The Case of Shimada
	12.4. Conclusion
13. Constructing the Historical Legacy of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East: Reassessing Perceptions of President William Webb
	13.1. Introduction
	13.2. Shaping Perceptions of the IMTFE
	13.3. Contradictory Views of President William Webb
	13.4. Webb and the Role of the President
	13.5. Private Criticism of Webb by the Judges
	13.6. The Emergence of Public Criticism of Webb
	13.7. Conclusion
Part IV: Receptions and Repercussions of the Trial
14. ‘Substantial Criminal Character’ or ‘Lawless Violence’: Crimes in the Charter of the Tokyo Tribunal and Their Receptions in Contemporary Japanese Legal Scholarship
	14.1. Introduction
	14.2. Crimes in the Tokyo Charter: Definitions, Modifications, Counts and Judgment
		14.2.1. Crimes Against Peace
		14.2.2. Crimes Against Humanity
		14.2.3. Conventional War Crimes
	14.3. The Contemporary Scholarly Debate on the Concept of Crimes
		14.3.1. Criminal Law Scholars
			14.3.1.1. Shigemitsu Dandō
			14.3.1.2. Seiichiro Ono
			14.3.1.3. Chihiro Saeki
		14.3.2. Public International Law Scholars
			14.3.2.1. Kenzō Takayanagi
			14.3.2.2. Kisaburō Yokota
	14.4. Outlook: Further Developments in the Japanese Scholarly Debate
15. Remembering the Tokyo Trial, Then and Now: The Japanese Domestic Context of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East
	15.1. Introduction
	15.2. The Tokyo Trial and the Allied Occupation of Japan
	15.3. Tokyo Trial vs. Other War Crimes Trials
	15.4. Legacies
	15.5. Conclusion
16. Clemency for War Criminals Convicted in the Tokyo Trials
	16.1. Introduction
	16.2. Clemency for Japanese War Criminals Before 1952
	16.3. War Criminals and the San Francisco Peace Treaty
	16.4. Negotiations over the IMTFE Prisoners
	16.5. Conclusion
17. Spaces of Punishment
	17.1. Introduction
	17.2. How to Punish War Criminals
	17.3. Sorting Out Suspected War Criminals
	17.4. Carceral Systems
18. The International Criminal Court and the International Military Tribunal for the Far East: Lessons Learnt or Not?
	18.1. Introduction
	18.2. Origins and Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Tribunals
	18.3. Procedural Law
	18.4. Substantive Law
		18.4.1. Individual Criminal Responsibility
		18.4.2. Command Responsibility
	18.5. Conclusion
Part V: Conclusion
19. Concluding Reflections: Nuremberg and Tokyo – Twin Tribunals, Far Apart?
	19.1. Introduction
	19.2. The German-Japanese Criminal Law Dialogue
	19.3. The German-Japanese Scientific Discourse
	19.4. Post-Second World War Developments
	19.5. Conclusion
Annex: Tokyo Charter
Index
TOAEP Team
Other Volumes in the Nuremberg Academy Series