The Space Economy in Figures: How Space Contributes to the Global Economy

Foreword
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Abbreviations and acronyms
Executive Summary
	The transformation of the space sector
	Further shake-ups expected in the space sector
	Policy actions for a globalised space sector
	Key facts and figures on the space sector
Chapter 1. The ongoing transformation of the global space sector
	Institutional and private investments on the rise around the world
		Institutional funding of space programmes
			Figure 1.1. More than 80 countries with a registered satellite in orbit
			Box 1.1. Space activities in Africa
				Figure 1.2. Space activities in Africa
				Figure 1.3. Official development assistance projects in Africa
			Box 1.2. R&D and innovation at the European Space Agency
				Figure 1.4. ESA’s budget at a glance
				Figure 1.5. ESA’s General Support Technology Programme funding
			Box 1.3. Surfing on the wave of New Space: New Zealand
			Figure 1.6. Evolution of space budgets for selected countries
			Figure 1.7. Selected government space budget estimates
			Figure 1.8. Civil space GBARD as a share of GDP and total government civil R&D allocations
			Figure 1.9. Long-term trends for civil space GBARD
			Box 1.4. Institutional funding of space activities
		Private funding of space activities
			Table 1.1. Selected billionaires’ space investments
	The space economy: Hype and market realities
		Box 1.5. Supporting start-ups and entrepreneurs
		Government space programmes supporting the space economy
		Putting different markets in perspective
			Box 1.6. Measuring the space economy
			Box 1.7. Trade in selected space products
				Figure 1.10. Exports of selected space products by region
			Table 1.2. Recent estimates of the space economy
	Space innovation is also more globalised
		Figure 1.11. Top producers in space literature, per country
		Figure 1.12. Scientific production in space literature, per region
		Figure 1.13. Growth rates in space literature, per region
		Figure 1.14. Patents for space-related technologies per country
		Figure 1.15. Top 20 regions in space-related patents
		Figure 1.16. Revealed technology advantage in space-related technologies
	Policy advice to better assess and support a transformed space sector
		Box 1.8. Increased government use of commercial services, via different procurement and co-funding mechanisms
	References
Chapter 2. The socio-economic impacts of space investments
	Introduction
	An original overview of the socio-economic impacts of space programmes
		Figure 2.1. Selected sectors that benefit from socio-economic effects derived from space investments
		Figure 2.2. Types of positive effects derived from space investments
		Figure 2.3. Benefits in and outside the space sector derived from space investments
		Figure 2.4. Types of efficiency and productivity gains derived from space investments
	Space technologies and the developing world
		Space technologies and official development assistance
			Figure 2.5. Commitments for space-related official development assistance projects
			Figure 2.6. Commitments for space-related official development assistance by donor, 2000-16
			Figure 2.7. Disbursements for space-related official development assistance by donor, 2002-16
			Figure 2.8. Commitments for space-related official development assistance projects by recipient region, 2000-16
			Figure 2.9. Space-related official development assistance commitments by project purpose, 2000-16
			Box 2.1. Official development assistance at the OECD
		Illustrations of technical assistance projects
			Table 2.1. Selected illustrations of space for development initiatives from around the world
			Box 2.2. Africapolis, an initiative from the OECD Sahel and West Africa Club
	Impacts of space technology transfers
		Assessing the effects of space TTCs
			Table 2.2. Selected benefits derived from space technology transfers
		Examples of successful transfers from the space sector
			Figure 2.10. NASA technology transfers to different economic sectors
			Table 2.3. Selected examples and applications of space technology transfers
			Box 2.3. Examples of technology transfers from the Space Shuttle space programme
		The role of policies
			Figure 2.11. Increase in Korean Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) patents’ licensing revenues
	References
Chapter 3. Remedying the gender gap in a dynamic space sector
	State of employment in the space sector
		Figure 3.1. Space manufacturing employment in selected OECD countries
	Employment in government and higher education organisations
		Female employment in government organisations
			Figure 3.2. Share of female employment in selected space agencies and research organisations
			Table 3.1. Share of female employment in different types of occupations, selected space organisations
			Figure 3.3. Occupations in selected science and engineering fields at NASA, by gender
			Box 3.1. Women and spaceflight
				Figure 3.4. Women in space
		Employment of women in higher education institutions in space-related fields
			Figure 3.5. Share of women in science and engineering fields at DLR and NASA
			Figure 3.6. Female share of postdoctoral fellowships by field, United States
	Gender diversity in the space industry
		Figure 3.7. Female employment rates in US aerospace manufacturing
	Preparing the next space workforce
		Figure 3.8. OECD average distribution of women graduates in selected fields of tertiary education, 2015
		Figure 3.9. Distribution of women graduates in science, technology, engineering and mathematics, OECD countries and selected partner economies
		Figure 3.10. Women graduates in space-related fields of education, United States
		Table 3.2. Selected policy instruments and organisations promoting gender equality
	References
Chapter 4. Digital (r)evolution in manufacturing and in the production of space systems
	Introduction
		Table 4.1. Cycles of space development
	New production and supply chain management processes
		Evolutions in space manufacturing
			Figure 4.1. Additive manufacturing of satellite antenna bracket
			Table 4.2. Selected 3D-printed parts in space launcher engines
		Adaptations in supply chain management
			Table 4.3. Selected cubesat batteries and their manufacturers
			Table 4.4. Selected manufacturers of cubesat on-board computing systems
	From rockets to satellites: More changes are coming
		A crowded landscape of rockets
			Figure 4.2. Number of successful space launches for selected actors, 1997-2018
			Figure 4.3. Commercial and non-commercial space launches in 2018
			Figure 4.4. Launch industry revenues estimates
			Box 4.1. Ever smaller satellites
			Table 4.5. Selected recent and planned small launchers for the low-earth orbit
			Table 4.6. Selected planned super-heavy launchers
		Cubesats as the new Swiss knife of the space sector
			Figure 4.5. Annual launches of very small satellites
			Table 4.7. Selected existing and planned cubesat constellations
	Looking ahead to emerging space activities
		Table 4.8. Possible space innovations by 2030 (anticipated in 2004)
		Box 4.2. Promising space systems and applications by 2030
		Adventure space tourism
			Table 4.9. Overview of existing and planned space tourism services
		In-orbit servicing
			Table 4.10. Selected proposed commercial in-orbit servicing services
		Space mining and resources extraction
	References
Chapter 5. Space exploration and the pursuit of scientific knowledge
	Introduction
	Space sciences and robotic space exploration
		Space science missions orbiting the earth
		Robotic extra-planetary missions
			Table 5.1. Popular extra-planetary destinations, 1958-2018
	The rise of citizen science and crowdsourcing
		Table 5.2. Selected citizen science projects for space science (solar system, sun and universe)
	Paving the way for new human spaceflight missions beyond Earth’s orbit
		Table 5.3. Human spaceflight capabilities in selected parts of the world
	The challenges and opportunities of space debris
		The space debris challenges
			Table 5.4. Space debris in numbers
		The way forward: International cooperation and private initiatives
			Table 5.5. Selected international cooperation mechanisms in the area of space debris
	References
Chapter 6. A new satellite communications environment
	The state of play in satellite communications
		Figure 6.1. Satellite filings by orbit type
	Satellite television at a crossroad
		Figure 6.2. Subscribers of TV broadcasting by technology
		Figure 6.3. Subscribers of satellite TV by region
		Figure 6.4. Growth of satellite TV subscriptions by region, 2008-17
	Consumer broadband and Internet of Things on the rise
		Figure 6.5. World-wide satellite broadband subscriptions
		Figure 6.6. Satellite broadband subscriptions by region and by country
		Figure 6.7. Growth of satellite broadband subscriptions by region, 2008-17
		Table 6.1. Selected planned satellite constellations in low- and medium-earth orbits
		Box 6.1. Defining the Internet of Things (IoT)
		Box 6.2. Selected spectrum issues for satellite networks
	References
Chapter 7. Bringing space to Earth with data-driven activities
	Introduction
	Exponential growth in the availability of satellite data and signals
		Figure 7.1. Number of national and multilateral operational earth observation missions
		Figure 7.2. Forthcoming and considered earth observation missions
		Box 7.1. Enhanced access to publicly funded data: remedying the challenges
		Figure 7.3. Evolution of satellite earth observation data access by instrument
		Box 7.2. Selected takeaways from NOAA’s Big Data Partnership project: NEXRAD data
	Zooming in on weather and climate monitoring
		Weather
			Table 7.1. Current geostationary weather satellites
			Table 7.2. Current polar-orbiting weather satellites (in sun-synchronous orbit)
			Box 7.3. Space weather observations
				Table 7.3. Current civilian satellites dedicated to space weather monitoring
		Climate change monitoring
			Table 7.4. Satellites’ contribution to measurements of essential climate variables
			Figure 7.4. Current and future essential climate variable data records by domain
			Figure 7.5. Current and future essential climate variable data records by organisation
		Ensuring continuity of observations
	Data for navigation, positioning and timing
		Table 7.5. Global navigation satellite systems for precision, navigation and timing services
		Table 7.6. Satellite-based augmentation systems for positioning, navigation and timing
	The growing importance of data hosting, processing and analytics
		Box 7.4. Artificial intelligence and satellite data
			Figure 7.6. Improved object detection accuracy of AI systems
		Table 7.7. Selected earth observation data platforms
		Box 7.5. Satellite data feeding into new economic indicators: Night lights as a proxy for economic activity
	References
Country Profiles: Actors in the Space Economy
	8. Guide to the Profiles
		“Fast facts” indicators
		Space budget trends and main programmes
		Scientific production in space literature
		Top applicants of space-related patents
		Penetration of satellite telecommunications technologies
		Space-related official development assistance commitments
		References
	9. Australia
		Figure 9.1. Australia – Fast facts
		Figure 9.2. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 9.3. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 9.4. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in Australia
		Figure 9.5. Australian space-related official development assistance commitments
	10. Canada
		Figure 10.1. Canada – Fast facts
		Figure 10.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 10.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 10.4. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 10.5. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in Canada
		Figure 10.6. Canadian space-related official development assistance commitments
	11. People’s Republic of China
		Figure 11.1. People’s Republic of China – Fast facts
		Figure 11.2. Revenues of Chinese companies involved in spacecraft manufacturing
		Figure 11.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 11.4. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 11.5. Space-related official development assistance projects conducted in China
	12. France
		Figure 12.1. France – Fast facts
		Figure 12.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 12.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 12.4. Top applicants in space-related patents
		Figure 12.5. French space-related official development assistance commitments
	13. Germany
		Figure 13.1. Germany – Fast facts
		Figure 13.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 13.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 13.4. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 13.5. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in Germany
		Figure 13.6. German space-related official development assistance commitments
	14. India
		Figure 14.1. India – Fast facts
		Figure 14.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 14.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 14.4. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 14.5. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in India
		Figure 14.6. Space-related official development assistance projects funded in India
	15. Italy
		Figure 15.1. Italy – Fast facts
		Figure 15.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 15.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 15.4. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 15.5. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in Italy
		Figure 15.6. Italian space-related official development assistance commitments
	16. Korea
		Figure 16.1. Korea – Fast facts
		Figure 16.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 16.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 16.4. Top applicants of space-related technologies per country
		Figure 16.5. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in Korea
		Figure 16.6. Korean space-related official development assistance commitments
	17. Mexico
		Figure 17.1. Mexico – Fast facts
		Figure 17.2. Space budget trends
		Figure 17.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 17.4. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in Mexico
		Figure 17.5. Space-related official development assistance projects carried out in Mexico
	18. The Netherlands
		Figure 18.1. Netherlands – Fast facts
		Figure 18.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 18.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 18.4. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 18.5. Netherlands’ space-related official development assistance disbursements
	19. New Zealand
		Figure 19.1. New Zealand – Fast facts
		Figure 19.2. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 19.3. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in New Zealand
	20. Norway
		Figure 20.1. Norway – Fast facts
		Figure 20.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 20.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 20.4. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 20.5. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in Norway
		Figure 20.6. Norwegian space-related official development assistance commitments
	21. Switzerland
		Figure 21.1. Switzerland – Fast facts
		Figure 21.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 21.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 21.4. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 21.5. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in Switzerland
		Figure 21.6. Switzerland’s space-related official development assistance commitments
	22. United Kingdom
		Figure 22.1. United Kingdom – Fast facts
		Figure 22.2. Space budgets trends and main programmes
		Figure 22.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 22.4. Top applications of space-related patents
		Figure 22.5. Penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in the United Kingdom
		Figure 22.6. UK space-related official development assistance commitments
	23. United States
		Figure 23.1. United States – Fast facts
		Figure 23.2. Space budget trends and main programmes
		Figure 23.3. Scientific production in space literature, per country
		Figure 23.4. Top applicants of space-related patents
		Figure 23.5. US penetration of satellite telecommunication technologies in the United States
		Figure 23.6. US space-related official development assistance commitments
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Boxes