The SAGE Handbook of Social Media

Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Notes on the Editors and Contributors
Editors’ Introduction
	The social media paradigm
	Scope and approach
	Structure and contents
		Histories and Pre-Histories
		Approaches and Methods
		Platforms, Technologies and Business Models
		Cultures and Practices
		Social and Economic Domains
	References
Part I-Histories and Pre-histories
	1-Pushing Back: Social Media as an Evolutionary Phenomenon
		Social media: Long story!
		‘Social instincts’
		Planetary scale
		‘World-historical facts’
		Economy vs culture: ‘most important’ or ‘worst mistake’?
			Most Important…
			Worst Mistake…
		Which came first – base or superstructure?
		The cultural revolution?
			Best Story
		Children must be scene but not earn?
		‘Good ancestors’
		O, O, those awful Dawks
		Sciron – or cultural science?
		References
	2-Early Social Computing:  The Rise and Fall of the  BBS Scene (1977–1995)
		Community Memory and the first bulletin board systems
		Bulletin board systems arrive on the scene
		Bulletin board systems in the mainstream
		The rise of commercial online services
		Bulletin board systems and sex
		Increasingly global reach
		Bulletin board systems and legal hassles
		The computer underground
		The short-lived boom: Internet killed the video star
		Conclusion
		References
	3-Alternative Histories of Social Media in Japan and China
		Introduction
		Japan
		China
		Conclusion
		References
	4-From Hypertext to Hype and  Back Again: Exploring the  Roots of Social Media in Early  Web Culture
		Introduction
		1. Early visions of digital culture
			Berners-Lee’s Information Universe
			The Virtual Community and the WELL
		2. The politics of dot.com euphoria: Web exceptionalism and cyberlibertarianism
		3. Defining ‘web-native’ culture
			The HotWired Debate
			Designing a ‘Professional’ Web in the dot.com Bubble
			The Rise of Blogging: Personal Publishing, Content Management and Web Filtering
		4. Open-source software and the data turn
			Slashdot as Early Example of a Participatory Media Platform
		5. Web 2.0 and social media
		References
Part II-Approaches and Methods
	5-Digital Methods for  Cross-platform Analysis
		Digital methods after social media
		Hashtag and (liked) page studies
		From single platform to cross-platform studies
		Platform cultures of use
		Cross-platform analysis: Co-linked, inter-liked and cross-hashtagged content
		Research strategies for cross-platform analysis
		Conclusions: Digital methods for cross-platform analysis
		Suggested resources
		References
	6-A Computational Analysis of  Social Media Scholarship
		Introduction
		Collecting and describing data from the web
			Our Application: The Scopus Bibliographic Database
			Results
			Discussion
		Network analysis
			Our Application: Citation Networks
			Results
			Discussion
		Text analysis
			Our Application: Identifying Topics in Social Media Research
			Results
			Discussion
		Predicting citation
			Our Application: Predicting Paper Citation
			Results
			Discussion
		Conclusion
			Reproducible Research
		Online supplements
		References
	7-Digital Discourse: Locating Language in New/Social Media
		Background
		Core organizing principles
			Discourse
			Multimodality
			Ideology
		Analytic framework
			Language as a Metadiscursive Resource
			Language as a Metrolingual Resource
			Language as a Multimodal Resource
			Language as a Technologizing Resource
		Further reading
		Acknowledgements
		References
	8-Ontology
		Existing approaches to social media
		Data
		Anatomy of social media2
		Users and reactivity and power
		Conclusion
		References
	9-Analysing Social Media Images
		Introduction
		Surveying the field
			Large-Scale Image Analysis
			Working with Images at Different Scales
			In-Depth Qualitative Analysis of Images
		Case study: The death of Alan Kurdi on Twitter
		Data, research questions and methods
			Research Questions and Methods
		Findings
			Large-Scale Image Analysis: The Spread and Diffusion of the Alan Kurdi Images
			Working with Images at Different Scales: The 100 Most Shared Alan Kurdi Images
			In-Depth Qualitative Analysis of Images: The Adaptation of the Original Alan Kurdi Images
		Conclusion
		References
	10-Ethnography
		Social media and ethnographic process
		Relationships of trust to inform grounded theory
		Social media and the ethnographic product
			Downloadable Digital Ethnography
			Can A ‘Tweet’ be Ethnographic?
		Conclusion: What does social media mean for ethnography?
		References
	11-Web History and Social Media
		Introduction
		Web history – what is the difference?
		Archived Web as a source
			From Online Web to Archived Web
				Screen shots and individual webpages in a static form
				Screen movie and downloaded video/audio
				Crawled web
			Consequences
			Where to Find the Web of the Past
			Purposively Archived Web
		Social media and archived Web
			High-Speed Updating and APIs
			Inaccessibility
			Integrated Digital Media Environments
		Looking back – examples of social media Web histories
			Facebook
			Twitter
			YouTube
			More Social Media, More Complex Sources
			The Challenges When Looking Back
		The future
		References
	12-The Incomplete Political  Economy of Social Media
		What do social media do?
		The facets and functions of social media: Architecture and infrastructure
		User-generated content
		Data harvesting
		Advertisements
		Content discrimination
		Social engineering in India
		Beyond social media: The operating system of our lives
		Why Veblen matters
		References
Part III-Platforms, Technologiesand Business Models
	13-The Affordances of  Social Media Platforms
		Conceptualizing affordances
			Perceived Affordances
			Technology Affordances
			Social Affordances
			Communicative Affordance
		Social media research and affordances
			High-Level and Low-Level Affordances
			Imagined Affordances
			Vernacular Affordances
		Re-assembling affordances
			A Relational and Multi-layered Approach to Affordances
			Platforms as Environments
		A platform-sensitive approach
			The Case of Twitter Platform Changes
			Expanding the Notion of the User
			Platform Users and their Interfaces
			The Adaptability of Platform Surfaces
			(Non)human Agency Affording Things to Technology
		Conclusion
		References
	14-Regulation of and by Platforms
		Regulation of platforms
			In the Middle
			The Myth of the Impartial Platform
			The Rise of Safe Harbor
			The Pressures on Safe Harbor
		Regulation by platforms
			Where the Lines are Drawn
			Enforcement and the Problem of Scale
			The Human Labor of Content Moderation
			To Remove or to Filter
		Conclusion: The question of responsibility
		References
	15-Social Media App Economies
		Introduction
		The app economy
		Social media revenue models
			Facebook
			Twitter
		BRICS and beyond
			China
			Russia
		‘Networked media’: The facilitation of interoperability and data-sharing
		Conclusion
		References
	16-Labor and Social Media:  The Exploitation and  Emancipation of (almost)  Everyone Online
		Introduction
		Shifting grounds, shifting perspectives
		Four modes of production
			Natural Labor of Sociality
			Wage Labor
			Free Labor
			Labor of Struggle
		Conclusion
		References
	17-Silicon Valley and the  Social Media Industry
		Introduction
		The Californian ideology and the history of Silicon Valley
		Myths of Silicon Valley
			Openness
			Meritocracy
			Entrepreneurialism
		Silicon Valley as global imaginary
			Emulating Silicon Valley
		Conclusion
		References
	18-Alternative Social Media: From Critique to Code
		Critiques of corporate social media
			Technical Infrastructures
			Political Economy
			Cultural Practices
		From criticism to code
			Technical Infrastructures
			Political Economy
			Cultural Practices
		Conclusion
		References
		Appendix: A selection of currently active alternative social media
			Diaspora*
			GNU Social
			Twister
			Ello
			Galaxy2
			Sone
Part IV-Cultures and Practices
	19-Our Networked Selves: Personal Connection and Relational Maintenance in Social Media Use
		Friends, followers, and circles: The characteristics of connection
			Relational Context
			Relational Strength
			Directionality
		Making friends: The dynamics of connection
		Birthday reminders and newsfeeds: Relational management and boundary work
			Architectural Qualities
			Boundary Work and the Rules of Social Media Connection
		Unfriending: The art of relationship dissolution
		Conclusion: Connecting the networked self
		References
	20-Television Viewing  and Fan Practice in an  Era of Multiple Screens
		Method
		Theorizing audiences, fans, and participatory practice
		Social media and the power of participatory dirt
			Spreadability
			Second Screen
			Liking and Following
			Interactivity: It’s Just a Tweet Away
			Creativity
		Conclusion
		References
	21-Trolling, and Other Problematic Social Media Practices
		I, troll
		Questions of (bad) form
		Going meta: Reviewing literature reviews
			Culture <-> Deviance
			Definition <-> Contextualization
			Endorsement <-> Critique
		There’s no trolling in China
		Social, media, practices
		References
	22-Internet Memes
		Introduction
		What is a meme?
		Early internet memes
		Memes as political practice
			Memes in Authoritarian Regimes
			Memes in Democratic Regimes
		Another kind of politics: Memes as activist practice
		The meme-industrial complex
		Memetic futures
		References
	23-Self-Representation in  Social Media
		Representations or presentations?
		Blogs and writing about the self
		Selfies and visual self-representations
		Quantified and automated self-representations
		Abundant self-representations
		References
	24-Sexual Expression in  Social Media
		Recent histories of online sexual expression
		Sexuality, intimacy and social media affordances
		Off-label uses and workarounds in sexual/social media
		Social media and the micropolitics of gendered sexual expression
		Young people’s sexual expression: Legal and ethical and social contexts
		Geo-location, sexual expression and queer world-making
		Sexual community, safety and stigma
		Sexuality, stigma and security in social media: The case of FetLife
		Conclusion
		References
	25-Privacy and Surveillance
		Introducing surveillance and visibility
		An emerging typology of user-led surveillance practices
		What does surveillance bring to our attention?
		Privacy and social media: A primer
		Social media privacy in practice
		Critical engagements with privacy
		Conclusion
		References
Part V-Social and Economic Domains
	26-Social Media Marketing
		Introduction
		Contextual crises
		Proto-history
		Social media marketing’s holy trinity
			Earned Media
			Owned Media
			Paid Media
		Evaluating the social media marketing mix
		Regulating social media content
		Conclusion
		References
	27-Social Media and Journalism
		Introduction
		Social media and the news
		The professional adoption of social media
		Social media and journalism practices
		Social media and journalism norms
		Looking ahead
		References
	28-Social Media and the Cultural  and Creative Industries
		Creative industries and social media: Close friends or distant relatives?
		Cultural and creative industries: Academic and policy debates
		Social media and the CCIs: Three scenarios
			Social media as Amplifier: Broadcasting and Twitter
			Social Media as Disruptor: The Continuing Crisis of News
			Social Media as Transformer: Algorithmic Screen Media
		Conclusion
		References
	29-Politics 2.0: Social  Media Campaigning
		What are campaigns doing?
			Social Media Adoption
			Persuasion in Social Media
			Micro-targeting and Mobilization
		The unforeseen consequences of adopting digital strategy
			Inviting Participation, Losing Control
			Public Platforms and Changes to Interfaces
			Limits to Data and Analytics
		Implications and conclusion
		References
	30-Social Media and New  Protest Movements
		A new mode of protest
		Leadership and collectivity
			Collectivity
		Techno-commercial strategies
			Acceleration
			Personalization and Virality
		Challenges for future research
		References
	31-Lively Data, Social Fitness and Biovalue: The Intersections  of Health and Fitness  Self-tracking and Social Media
		Introduction
		Theoretical foundations
		Self-tracking and the quantified self
		Technologies for self-tracking fitness, health and medicine
		Personal health data and social media
		The exploitation of personal health data
		Discussion: Digitised bodies, surveillance and biocapital
		Future directions
		References
	32-Social Media Platforms  and Education
		Introduction
		Social media’s impact on education: Tools or platforms?
		Datafication: AltSchool as a platform for primary education
		Commodification: Coursera and the impact of MOOCs on higher education
		The platformization of education
		References
	33-Scholarly Communication  in Social Media
		Introduction
			Basics of Scholarly Communication
			Effects of Social Media in Scholarly Communication
		Academic uses of social media platforms
		Text-based social media platforms as additions to scholarly publications
		Networking and content-sharing platforms for general audiences that are used by academics
		Specific social media platforms for academic audiences
		Challenges and drawbacks of using social media in academia
		Assessing scholarly communication with social media metrics
			Footprints, Shadows and Digital identities
		What do social media metrics measure – and how?
		Conclusion
		References
Index