The Running Athlete: A Comprehensive Overview of Running in Different Sports

Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
Introduction
Part I: General Aspects
	1: Biomechanics of Running
		1.1	 Introduction
			1.1.1	 Definition of Biomechanics
			1.1.2	 Musculoskeletal System: Passive and Active Structures
			1.1.3	 Duties of Biomechanics
			1.1.4	 Running Biomechanical Analysis
		1.2	 Brief History of Biomechanical Analysis
		1.3	 Inside the Lab: Three-Dimensional Biomechanical Analysis of Running
			1.3.1	 Kinematics
			1.3.2	 Kinetics
			1.3.3	 Temporospatial
		1.4	 Outside the Lab: Wearables and New Technologies
			1.4.1	 Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs)
			1.4.2	 Pressure Insoles
			1.4.3	 Smartphone Apps
		1.5	 New Analysis Methods and Future Areas of Research
			1.5.1	 Finite Element Analysis
			1.5.2	 Machine Learning
		1.6	 Conclusions
		References
	2: Physiology of Running: Sprint and Short Distances
		2.1	 Introduction
		2.2	 What Are the Main Energy Source of Sprint Running?
		2.3	 What Is the Part of Energy in the Determinants of Sprint Running Performance?
		2.4	 What Is the Energy Cost of Sprint Running?
		2.5	 Conclusions
		References
	3: Training Principles
		3.1	 Training Concept
		3.2	 Changes Induced by Training
		3.3	 Training Methods and Physiological Effects Related
			3.3.1	 Aerobic Endurance Training
			3.3.2	 Aerobic Power Training
				3.3.2.1	 Lactacid Resistance Training
				3.3.2.2	 Lactacid Capacity Training
				3.3.2.3	 Lactacid Power Training
			3.3.3	 Speed Training
			3.3.4	 Resistance Training Using Uphill Running
			3.3.5	 Hill Running as a Training Strategy
		References
	4: Nutrition for Track Running and Ultra-Running: Practical Recommendations
		4.1	 Nutrition Requirements in Track Running
		4.2	 Nutrition in Ultra-Running
		4.3	 The Preparation
			4.3.1	 Seven Days Before the Race: Saturating Muscle Glycogen Stores
		4.4	 The Race
			4.4.1	 Two Goals: (1) Facilitate Athletic Performance and (2) Prevent or Limiting Gut Problems During the Race
			4.4.2	 Why to Adopt a Hydration Strategy?
			4.4.3	 How to Measure Out the Exercise Drink’s Powder?
		4.5	 The Recovery
			4.5.1	 Two Goals: (1) Countering the Effects of Dehydration. (2) Fill the Glycogen Stores Emptied by the Effort of the Race
		References
	5: Age and Running: Children and Adolescents, Elder People
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 The Role of Aerobic Metabolism in Running
		5.3	 Running Performance at the Age Range
		5.4	 Children and Adolescents
		5.5	 Elderly Runner
		5.6	 Biomechanical Changes of Aging in Running Performance
		5.7	 “Forrest Gump Runner’s Behavior” Syndrome [1]
			5.7.1	 An Irrational Impulse for Body Performance or Aesthetics
			5.7.2	 Injury and Prevention
		References
	6: Sex Differences Between Women and Men in Running
		6.1	 Sex Difference in Participation in Running Races
		6.2	 Performance Difference Between Women and Men
		6.3	 Age of Peak Running Performance
		6.4	 Pacing in Running
		6.5	 Specific Physiological Differences
		6.6	 Mental Fatigue
		6.7	 Nutritional Aspects
		6.8	 Medical Aspects
		6.9	 The Aspect of Nationality
		6.10	 Motivational Aspects
		References
	7: Running and Metabolic Diseases
		7.1	 Introduction
		7.2	 Concept of Metabolic Disease
			7.2.1	 What Is a Metabolic Disorder or Disease?
		7.3	 Health Benefits of Running. General Aspects
		7.4	 Cardiometabolic Risk
		7.5	 Myokines and Exercise: Role of Myokines in the Regulation of Metabolism and Metabolic Health
		7.6	 Metabolic Syndrome
			7.6.1	 How Is the Diagnosis Made?
		7.7	 Benefits of Running in some Metabolic Diseases
			7.7.1	 Obesity
			7.7.2	 Dyslipidaemia
			7.7.3	 Type 2 Diabetes
		References
	8: Running Activities in Times of COVID-19 Pandemic
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 Home Training Due to Home Confinement
		8.3	 Return to Training and Competition After Home Confinement
		8.4	 Training and Competition After COVID-19 Infection
		8.5	 Training and Competition with Mask
		8.6	 Other Important Measures to Be Taken into Account While Exercising During COVID-19 Pandemic
		References
	9: Shoes for Running
		9.1	 Running Shoes: Main Characteristics and Their Evolution
			9.1.1	 History
			9.1.2	 Main Technical Characteristics (Fig. 9.2)
		9.2	 Non-spiked Running Shoes
			9.2.1	 Road Running
				9.2.1.1	 Cushioned or Regular Shoes
				9.2.1.2	 Minimalist Shoes
				9.2.1.3	 Adherence on the Road
			9.2.2	 Mountain and Trail Running
		9.3	 Spiked Running Shoes
			9.3.1	 Track Running Shoes
			9.3.2	 Cross Country Shoes
			9.3.3	 Different Types of Spikes
			9.3.4	 Spiked Shoes to Run… and Jump
		9.4	 Running Shoes and Injuries
		9.5	 Running Shoes and Performance
			9.5.1	 World Records
			9.5.2	 What Science Says
		9.6	 Running Shoe Rules
		9.7	 Running and Foot Orthosis
			9.7.1	 Running Economy and Performance
			9.7.2	 Patellofemoral Pain
			9.7.3	 Other Pathologies
		9.8	 Trends and Perspectives
			9.8.1	 The Technological Path
			9.8.2	 The (Almost) Self-sufficient Path
		References
	10: Wearable Tech for Long-Distance Runners
		10.1	 Introduction
		10.2	 Heart Rate Monitors
		10.3	 Running Parameters
		10.4	 Other Physiological Parameters
			10.4.1	 Respiratory Rate
			10.4.2	 Electrodermal Activity and Sweat
			10.4.3	 Glucose
		10.5	 Environmental Parameters
		10.6	 Smartphone Apps
		10.7	 Future Trends
			10.7.1	 Transcutaneous Partial Pressure of CO2
			10.7.2	 Environmental Pollution and Air Quality
		10.8	 Conclusions
		References
	11: Return to Running After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
		11.1	 Introduction
		11.2	 The Demands of Running
		11.3	 Criteria to Return to Running After ACLR
			11.3.1	 Joint Homeostasis
			11.3.2	 Knee Mobility
			11.3.3	 Gait Biomechanics
			11.3.4	 Strength
			11.3.5	 Functional Outcomes
		11.4	 Return to Running Progression
			11.4.1	 Pain (Knee Homeostasis): Absent or Minimal Pain on a Numerical Rating Scale (NRS)
			11.4.2	 Effusion (Knee Homeostasis): Zero or Trace Effusion [4] with Minimal Activity Related Effusion (<1 cm Change Patella)
			11.4.3	 Knee Extension and Flexion (Mobility): Straight Knee (0°) or Equal to the Other Side and Knee Flexion ≥120°/130°
			11.4.4	 Walking Biomechanics: Walking on a Treadmill for At Least 10 min Without Pain or Swelling [12] and With Optimal Biomechanics
			11.4.5	 Quadriceps Muscle Strength: Limb Symmetry Index (LSI) >70% on Isokinetic/Isometric Test for Quadriceps Strength [4, 5]
			11.4.6	 Hamstrings Muscle Strength: Limb Symmetry Index (LSI) >70% on Isokinetic/Isometric Test for Hamstrings Strength [4, 5]
			11.4.7	 Calf Strength and Capacity: Greater than 20 Reps and Within 5 Repetitions Versus the Other Side [4]
			11.4.8	 Glutes Strength and Capacity: Greater than 20 Reps and Within 5 Repetitions Versus the Other Side [4]
			11.4.9	 Movement Quality: Good Single Leg Squat Movement Assessment
			11.4.10	 Lumbo-Pelvic, Trunk and Core Stability
		11.5	 Conclusions
		References
Part II: Specific Aspects
	12: Athletics Running Disciplines
		12.1	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Athletics
		12.2	 Sprint and Short-Distance Running
			12.2.1	 Technical Aspects
			12.2.2	 Distribution of the Effort
				12.2.2.1	 100 m
				12.2.2.2	 200 m
				12.2.2.3	 400 m
			12.2.3	 Speed Training
			12.2.4	 Common and Uncommon Injuries in Sprint
		12.3	 Middle- and Long-Distance Running
			12.3.1	 Specific Considerations About Endurance and Fatigue
			12.3.2	 Middle Distances on Track (800 m–1500 m)
			12.3.3	 Long Distances on Track (5000 m–10,000 m–3000 m Steeple)
			12.3.4	 Marathon Training
			12.3.5	 Common and Uncommon Injuries in Middle-Long-Distance Running
			12.3.6	 Prevention Strategies
		12.4	 Conclusions
		References
	13: Running in Football
		13.1	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Football
			13.1.1	 History of Football
			13.1.2	 Physiological Demands on Players
			13.1.3	 Run Performance Analysis with GPS
			13.1.4	 Gait Analysis
			13.1.5	 Statistical Data of Running in Football
		13.2	 Training Strategies
		13.3	 Prevention Strategies
		References
	14: Running in Rugby
		14.1	 Characteristics of the Sport
		14.2	 Match, Field of Play and Team Characteristics
		14.3	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Rugby
			14.3.1	 Rugby Union
				14.3.1.1	 Running Patterns Between Positions
				14.3.1.2	 Running Patterns within Phases of Play
				14.3.1.3	 Running Patterns of Officials
			14.3.2	 Rugby League
				14.3.2.1	 Running Patterns Between Positions
		14.4	 Sevens
		14.5	 Training and Prevention Strategies
		14.6	 Summary
		References
	15: Running in Gymnastics
		15.1	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Gymnastics
		15.2	 Running Phases in Gymnastics
			15.2.1	 Amortization Phase (Stabilization): Initial Contact (Stance Phase)
			15.2.2	 Mid Stance Phase
			15.2.3	 Toe Off Phase
		15.3	 Characteristics of Main Injuries
			15.3.1	 Achilles Tendinopathy
			15.3.2	 Patello-Femoral Syndrome (PFS)
		15.4	 Training Strategies
		References
	16: Running in Tumbling
		16.1	 History of Tumbling [1]
		16.2	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Tumbling
		16.3	 Training Strategies
		16.4	 Types of Tumbling Moves
			16.4.1	 Flick
			16.4.2	 Whip Back
			16.4.3	 Mid Routine Doubles
			16.4.4	 Final Skill
		16.5	 Basic Skill to Begin Gymnastics as an Activity (Basic Tumbling Moves)
			16.5.1	 Roll
			16.5.2	 Pencil and Log Rolls
			16.5.3	 Forward Roll
			16.5.4	 Backward Roll
			16.5.5	 Cartwheel
			16.5.6	 Round Off
			16.5.7	 Bridge
		16.6	 Other Move Options
			16.6.1	 Straddle Jump
			16.6.2	 Front Pike Roll (Somersault)
			16.6.3	 Gymnastic Injuries
		16.7	 Prevention Strategies
		References
	17: Running in Basketball
		17.1	 Roles and Characteristics of Running in Basketball
			17.1.1	 Movements in Basketball
			17.1.2	 Activity and Physiological Demand in Basketball
				17.1.2.1	 Generalities
				17.1.2.2	 Physical Attributes
				17.1.2.3	 Distance Covered
				17.1.2.4	 Number and Frequency of Actions
				17.1.2.5	 Activity Duration
				17.1.2.6	 Heart Rate (HR)
			17.1.3	 Specificities of 3v3 Basketball
		17.2	 Training Strategies
		17.3	 Prevention Strategies
		References
	18: Running in Tennis
		18.1	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Tennis
		18.2	 Training Strategies: Technical Aspect
			18.2.1	 Starting Position (Split Step)
			18.2.2	 Lateral Movement Towards the Ball Over Short Distances
			18.2.3	 Lateral Movement Towards Angled Balls
			18.2.4	 The Drop Shot and the Lob: Recovering a Ball by Sprinting Forward or Backward
			18.2.5	 Inside-out Forehand: Movement Towards the Ball
			18.2.6	 Forward and Backward Movement Towards the Ball within 3 m
			18.2.7	 Recovery of the Position
		18.3	 Prevention Strategies
		References
	19: Running in Paddle
		19.1	 Characteristics of Running in Paddle
		19.2	 Training Strategies
		19.3	 Most Frequent Injuries
		19.4	 Prevention Strategies
		References
	20: Running in Volleyball
		20.1	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Volleyball
		20.2	 Specificities of Running in Beach Volleyball
		20.3	 Training Strategies
		20.4	 Injuries in Volleyball
		20.5	 Injuries in Beach Volley
		20.6	 Prevention Strategies
		20.7	 Specificities of Prevention Strategies in Beach Volleyball
		References
	21: Running in Handball
		21.1	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Handball and Beach Handball
		21.2	 Training Strategies
		21.3	 Prevention Strategies for Handball and Beach Handball
		References
	22: Trail Running
		22.1	 Role and Characteristics of Trail Running
			22.1.1	 Trail Running Equipment: What Athletes Need to Run?
		22.2	 Training Strategies
		22.3	 Prevention Strategies
		22.4	 Conclusions
		References
	23: Running in Ironman Triathlon
		23.1	 Preparation for an Ironman Triathlon
		23.2	 The Aspect of Anthropometry
		23.3	 Personal Best Marathon Time
		23.4	 Injuries and Preventive Measures Before and During an Ironman Triathlon
		23.5	 Metabolic Changes
		23.6	 Musculoskeletal Changes
			23.6.1	 Fact Box
		References
	24: Running in Parkour
		24.1	 Introduction
		24.2	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Parkour
			24.2.1	 Characteristics of the Sport in Terms of Performance
			24.2.2	 The Role of Running in Parkour
			24.2.3	 Running Training in Parkour
			24.2.4	 Physiological Characteristics of the Sport
			24.2.5	 Training Strategies
			24.2.6	 Programming in Parkour
			24.2.7	 Prevention Strategies
		24.3	 Conclusions
		References
	25: Running in Field hockey
		25.1	 Characteristics of the Sport
		25.2	 Physiological and Biomechanical Demands
		25.3	 Running Demands for Different Playing Positions
		25.4	 Epidemiology and Etiology of Injuries
			25.4.1	 Epidemiology
			25.4.2	 Etiology
		25.5	 Training Strategies
		25.6	 Medical Team Support
		25.7	 Specific Rehab and Return to Play
		25.8	 Prevention Strategies
		References
	26: Running in Cycling
		26.1	 Introduction
		26.2	 Pathophysiology and Biomechanics
		26.3	 Benefits of Running for Cyclists
			26.3.1	 Bone Density
			26.3.2	 Increased Cardiovascular, Muscular Strength, and Exercise Tolerance
			26.3.3	 Psychological Benefits
		26.4	 Negative Impact of Running on Cyclists
		26.5	 Running in Different Modes of Cycling
			26.5.1	 Running for a Road Cyclist
			26.5.2	 Running for a Mountain Bike Rider
			26.5.3	 Running for a Cyclo-Cross Rider
		References
	27: Running in Alpine Skiing
		27.1	 Characteristics of Running and Its Role in Alpine Skiing
		27.2	 Training Strategies
		27.3	 Prevention Strategies
			27.3.1	 Injury and Injury Patterns in Alpine Skiing
			27.3.2	 Running as a Prevention Tool in Alpine Skiing
				27.3.2.1	 Interval Training and Long-Distance Run
				27.3.2.2	 Off-Road Running
		27.4	 Conclusion for Practice
		References
	28: Running in Kiteboarding
		28.1	 Introduction
		28.2	 The Sport and the Equipment
			28.2.1	 Equipment
			28.2.2	 Styles and Disciplines
		28.3	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Kiteboarding
			28.3.1	 Physiological Demands of Kiteboarding
				28.3.1.1	 Course Racing
				28.3.1.2	 Freestyle
			28.3.2	 Main Objectives of Athletic Training
			28.3.3	 The Role of Running in Training for Kiteboarding
		28.4	 Training Strategies
			28.4.1	 Training Strategies for Beginners and Amateurs
			28.4.2	 Training Strategies for Agonists
		28.5	 Prevention Strategies
		28.6	 Conclusions
		References
	29: Running in Sailing
		29.1	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Sailing
			29.1.1	 Evolution of Physical Performance in Sailing
			29.1.2	 The Role of Running in Sailing
			29.1.3	 Running for Beginners and Amateurs
			29.1.4	 Olympic Classes
		29.2	 Training Strategies
			29.2.1	 Periodisation
			29.2.2	 Training Strategies in Olympic Classes
				29.2.2.1	 49er Class
				29.2.2.2	 RSX Sailboards
				29.2.2.3	 Laser, Finn and 470
			29.2.3	 Training Strategies to Achieve the Ideal BMI
			29.2.4	 Training Strategies in Rehabilitation
			29.2.5	 Training Strategies in the America’s Cup
			29.2.6	 Training Strategies in Offshore Sailing
		29.3	 Prevention Strategies
		29.4	 Conclusions
		References
	30: Running in Rowing
		30.1	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Rowers
		30.2	 Training Strategies
		30.3	 Prevention Strategies
		References
	31: Running in Space
		31.1	 Role and Characteristics of Running in Space
		31.2	 Training Strategies
		31.3	 Prevention Strategies
		References