The Oxford Handbook of Industrial Hubs and Economic Development

Cover
INDUSTRIAL HUBS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Copyright
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Figures and Maps
	Figures
	Maps
List of Tables
List of Contributors
PART I: CONCEPTS AND METHODOLOGIES
	Chapter 1: Industrial Hubs and Economic Development: An Introduction
		1.1 Background to Industrial Hubs and Economic Development
		1.2 Preparing the Handbook
			1.2.1 Aims and Approaches
			1.2.2 Preparation of the Handbook
			1.2.3 Readership of the Handbook
		1.3 Themes and Perspectives
			1.3.1 The Concept of Industrial Hubs
			1.3.2 Complexities and Connections between Industrial Hubs and Economic Development
			1.3.3 Divergence in Development Perspectives and Variations in Empirical Evidence
			1.3.4 Industrial Hubs and Implications for Latecomers
		1.4 Organization of the Handbook
		1.5 Conclusions
		Acknowledgemen
		References
	Chapter 2: Industrial Hubs and Economic Development: A Literature Review
		2.1 Background and Introduction to Literature Review of Industrial Hubs
			2.1.1 Focus and Approach of Literature Review
		2.2 Agglomeration Economies and Cluster Dynamics
			2.2.1 Externalities and the Marshallian Trinity
				2.2.1.1 Internal and external economies of scale
				2.2.1.2 Marshallian localization economies
			2.2.2 Industrial Clusters and Firm Competitiveness
			2.2.3 Productive Cities and Industrial Hubs
		2.3 Structural Transformation, Catch-up, and Industrial Policy
			2.3.1 Structural Transformation as the Essence of Economic Development
				2.3.1.1 Manufacturing as an engine of growth and structural change
				2.3.1.2 The strategic role of exports
			2.3.2 The Latecomer Advantage and Catch-up
			2.3.3 Industrial Policies as Prime Vehicle of Transformation and Catch-up
		2.4 Empirical Perspectives on Industrial Hubs and Recent Literature
			2.4.1 The Industrial District Literature (1985 to 2000s)
			2.4.2 Lessons from the Practice of Industrial Hubs
				2.4.2.1 Concept of industrial hubs
				2.4.2.2 The large wave of industrial hubs in Asia
		2.5 Industrial Hubs and Economic Development: A Synthesis and Conclusions
			2.5.1 Summary of Literature Review
			2.5.2 Innovation and Technological Capabilities
			2.5.3 Strategies of National Economies and Firms
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 3: Heterodox Approaches to Industrial Policy and the Implications for Industrial Hubs
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Industrial Policy in History and Theory
		3.3 Overview of Structuralist Development Economics and Structural Transformation
		3.4 The Challenge of Premature Deindustrialization
		3.5 From Assembly Plants to Plant Assembly: Classification and Structural Change
		3.6 A Structuralist Approach to Hubs
		3.7 Hubs and Structural Transformation: Difficulties and Policies
		References
	Chapter 4: The Economics of Innovation behind Cluster Dynamic Processes
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Cluster Dynamics in a Circular Flow Schema
		4.3 Marshall and Penrose: Linking Intra-Firm and Inter-Firm Growth Dynamics
		4.4 Kuznets, Penrose, and Sector Transitions
		4.5 Veblen and Young: Cumulative Increasing Returns
		4.6 Jane Jacobs and Marshall’s Large Cities
		4.7 Industrial Districts and Rapid Growth in China
		4.8 Policy Frameworks: The Capability Triad and Extra-firm Infrastructures
		References
	Chapter 5: Local Ecosystems and Social Conditions of Innovative Enterprise
		5.1 Theoretical Approaches to the Firm–Locality Nexus
		5.2 Lancashire Cotton and the ‘Workshop of the World’
		5.3 The ‘Third Italy’ and the Emilia Romagna Industrial Ecosystem
		5.4 ‘Silicon Valley’ as the Epicentre of a Global Technological Revolution
		5.5 General Lessons about Economic Development from the Iconic Industrial Districts
			5.5.1 Lessons from Lancashire
			5.5.2 Lessons from the Third Italy and Emilia Romagna
			5.5.3 Lessons from Silicon Valley
			References
	Chapter 6: Industrial Policy, Institutional Transformation, and the Development of Industrial Parks
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Neoclassical Economic Approaches to Industrial Parks
		6.3 Neoclassical Economics and the Textile Parks of India: An Exploration
		6.4 Alternative Theoretical Constructs for Building Industrial Policy and Parks
			6.4.1 Structuralism
			6.4.2 The Developmental State
			6.4.3 The Capabilities Approach
			6.4.4 Organizations and the Institutional Approach to Industrial Policy
		6.5 Applications to Industrial Policy and Industrial Parks: Key Elements
		6.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 7: Industrial Hubs: The Viewpoints of Economic Geography and Empirical Economics
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Economic Geography and Spatial Economics Theories
			7.2.1 The Driving Force of Agglomeration
			7.2.2 Economic Development and Industrial Clustering
			7.2.3 History and Expectations
		7.3 Methodological Issues in Empirical Studies on Policy Evaluation
			7.3.1 Causal Inference Framework
			7.3.2 Selection Bias
			7.3.3 Relocation and Spillover
			7.3.4 Sample Selection Bias
			7.3.5 External Validity
			7.3.6 Reduced-form Approach and Structural Approach
		7.4 Empirical Evidence on Economic Agglomeration and Policy Effectiveness
			7.4.1 Agglomeration Economies
			7.4.2 Industrial Zones
			7.4.3 Infrastructure
		7.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: Industrial Hubs, Urban Systems, and Economic Development
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Industrialization and Urbanization: A Historical Perspective
		8.3 Global Urban Dynamics
		8.4 Urban Scale Economies and Productivity
		8.5 Urban Systems: Theoretical Underpinnings
		8.6 Industrial Location and the Urban System
		8.7 Urban Diseconomies and Industrial Activity
		8.8 The Global Urban System and Industrial Hubs
		8.9 Enabling the Urban-industrial Economy
		8.10 Concluding Remarks
		References
PART II: HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND ANALYTICAL THEMES
	Chapter 9: Industrialization, Hubs, and Catch-up: The World Economy in Historical Perspective
		9.1 Industrialization and Industrial Hubs
		9.2 The Era of Dramatic Changes: 1750–1913
		9.3 The Decades of Continuity: 1913–73
		9.4 Beginnings of Transformative Change: 1970–2017
		9.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Industrial Districts in Europe: Lessons for Industrial Hubs and Industrialization
		10.1 The Emergence of the Question
		10.2 The Dynamics of Industrial Districts in Europe
			10.2.1 The Success Stories of Southern European Industrial Districts
			10.2.2 The Different ID Dynamics in Northern and Southern European Countries
			10.2.3 The Introduction of Industrial Districts into the Economic Debate in Europe
		10.3 The Industrial District Model
			10.3.1 The Working Mechanisms
			10.3.2 The Dynamic Model
			10.3.3 Social Capability and Some Preliminary Conclusions
		10.4 The Rise and Decline of Industrial Districts in Europe
			10.4.1 The Golden Age of Industrial Districts
			10.4.2 Transformation versus Crisis in Industrial District Organization
			10.4.3 Learning and Innovation
			10.4.4 Lessons from the Historical Perspective: The Risks of Collapse of the Model
		10.5 The Forces of Globalization in the International Market: Impact on Industrial Districts
			10.5.1 The International Context
			10.5.2 Typologies of Transformation in Industrial Districts
		10.6 Questions for Today: The Impact of the Economic Crisis and the New Internal Restructuring in Industrial Districts
			10.6.1 The Governance of Transformation Processes
			10.6.2 Collective Actions for the Reproduction of External Economies: Experiences in European Countries
		10.7 Lessons for Emerging Countries and New Industrial Regions: Some Final Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 11: The Political Economy of Special Economic Zones: Pasts, Presents, Futures
		11.1 Where is the Juncture? Industrialization-driven Development, SEZs, and Industrial Hubs
		11.2 Free Trade or Industrial Districts? Predecessors of Special Economic Zones
		11.3 Legacies of Imperialism? The Global Spread of Special Economic Zones
		11.4 From Zones to Hubs? Learning to Curb Runaway Capital in SEZs
		References
	Chapter 12: Cluster Dynamics and Regional Networks: New Argonauts, Silicon Valley, and Route 128
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 The New Argonauts and the Rise of Cross-regional Entrepreneurship
			12.2.1 From Brain Drain to Brain Circulation
			12.2.2 Entrepreneurship in the Periphery
		12.3 Firm Dynamics: Cross-Regional Start-ups and Talent Gain
			12.3.1 Looking Ahead
			12.3.2 A Model for Others?
		12.4 Agglomeration Economies and Industrial Clusters
		12.5 A Network Approach to Regions and Industrial Hubs
			12.5.1 Regional Networks and Shifting Industrial Systems
		12.6 Synergy Between Regional Networks and Firm Production Systems
			12.6.1 Start-ups and Spin-out Firms
			12.6.2 Big Businesses and Cluster Dynamics
		12.7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 13: Agglomeration of European Industries
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Agglomeration of European Industries: The Focus of this Chapter
		13.3 External Imbalances in the European Union and the Role of Industrial Activity
		13.4 The Agglomeration of IndustrialActivity in the ‘Central European Manufacturing Core’
		13.5 The Role of Cross-border Production Networks and Patterns of Vertical Specialization
		13.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 14: The Global Experience in Special Economic Zones: A History and Review
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Definitions, Objectives,
and Forms of SEZs
		14.3 The Evolution of SEZs as
Tools of Industrialization
		14.4 Some Key Lessons Learned
from SEZ Experiences
			14.4.1 Sustained Political Support and Strategic Integration
			14.4.2 Leveraging Comparative Advantage
			14.4.3 Getting the Location Right
			14.4.4 Identifying and Resolving Barriers to Investment
in the Zones
			14.4.5 Leveraging the Expertise of the Private Sector, but
Avoiding Rigid Ideological Approaches
			14.4.6 Getting Incentives Right
			14.4.7 Delivering Quality Infrastructure
			14.4.8 Connecting to the Local Economy
		14.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 15: Leapfrogging through Smart Manufacturing: The Role of Hubs in Industry 4.0
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Industrial Hubs: Looking Back, Drawing Lessons
		15.3 Can Smart Manufacturing be a Leapfrogging Strategy?
			15.3.1 Smart Manufacturing Explained
			15.3.2 The Incremental and Modular Nature of Data-driven Innovation
		15.4 Smart Manufacturing Strategies for Africa
			15.4.1 Moving from Analogue to Digital/Smart Manufacturing
			15.4.2 Some Lessons from Germany’s Industry 4.0 Framework
		15.5 Drawing Lessons andRethinking the Role of Hubs and Policy in Industry 4.0
			15.5.1 Starting Out: Integrating ICT Hubs with Manufacturing Potential
			15.5.2 The Functions of Cross-sectional Industrial Hubs
			15.5.3 Securing a Virtuous Cycle of Value Creation
		15.6 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 16: The Servitization of Industrial Hubs in the Digital Era
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Megacities Ascending
		16.3 Manufacturing Losing Ground
		16.4 Can Special Zones Still Incubate Hubs?
		16.5 Servitization and Digitization on the March
		16.6 Concluding Observations on Servitized Industrial Hubs
		References
	Chapter 17: An Urban Planning Perspective on Industrial Hubs and Economic Development
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 The Role of Cities in Economic Development: Conflicting Theoretical Perspectives
		17.3 Urbanization and Industrialization: The African Experience?
			17.3.1 Promoting Industrialization through Plan-led Urbanization
				17.3.1.1 Cities as development nodes
		17.4 Urbanization Trends in Ethiopia: Implications for Industrialization
			17.4.1 ‘Vision 2025’ and Ethiopia’s Quest for Industrialization
			17.4.2 Industrial Parks as Sub-national Development Nodes
			17.4.3 Transforming Cities as Development Nodes and Clusters
			17.4.4 Making Planned Urbanization and Industrialization Work: Key Challenges
			17.4.5 Weak Policy Formulation and Implementation Capacity
			17.4.6 Coordination Challenges
			17.4.7 Lack of Coherence between Urban Development Policy and Industrial Policy
		17.5 Corridor-based Development and Spatial Development Initiatives
			17.5.1 Transboundary City Clusters along Transport Corridors
			17.5.2 The Urban Dimension of Macro-regions
			17.5.3 The SDI Methodology in Practice
			17.5.4 Transforming Resource Corridors into Macro-regional Development Zones
		17.6 Conclusion: Mainstreaming Urbanization in National Development Plans
		References
	Chapter 18: Special Economic Zones and Export-led Growth: An Industrial Policy Imperative
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Economic Zones (EZs) and Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
		18.3 Strategic Industrial Policy Considerations
			18.3.1 The Ability to Extract the Right Lessons
			18.3.2 Static and Dynamic Benefits of SEZs and the Key Role of Productive Capacity
		18.4 Industrial Policy Instruments’ Alignment with Industrialization Stage
			18.4.1 Early Stages
			18.4.2 Middle Stages
			18.4.3 Late Stages
		18.5 SEZs and the Policy Mix
			18.5.1 Early Stages: Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
			18.5.2 Early Stages: Industrial Clustering
			18.5.3 Middle Stages: Incubation, Entrepreneurship, and Imitation
			18.5.4 Middle Stages: Linkages
			18.5.5 Middle Stages: Participating in Global Value Chains (GVCs)
			18.5.6 Late Stages: Innovation
		18.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 19: A Flowchart Approach to Industrial Hubs
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Economies of Sequence and the Flowchart Approach
			19.2.1 Segments and the Economies of Sequence
			19.2.2 The Flowchart Approach
			19.2.3 Implications of the New Economic Geography for the Flowchart Approach
		19.3 The Prototype of Asian Growth Models
			19.3.1 Taiwanese Export Processing Zone as the Prototype of Asian Growth Models
			19.3.2 State Economic Development Corporations in Malaysia
			19.3.3 The Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand
		19.4 Industrial Agglomerations in Northern Vietnam
			19.4.1 National Highway Route 5 in 1993 and Haiphong Port in 1995
			19.4.2 The Thang Long Industrial Park and Nomura Haiphong Industrial Zone in 1997
			19.4.3 Institutional Reform of the Miyazawa Plan in 1999
			19.4.4 Living Conditions in 2002
			19.4.5 Canon and its Agglomeration in 2002
		19.5 The Eastern Seaboard Development Programme in Thailand
			19.5.1 Laem Chabang Port in 1984
			19.5.2 Tax Incentives
			19.5.3 Industrial Zones
			19.5.4 Mitsubishi Motors and its Agglomeration in 1992
			19.5.5 Industrial Agglomeration
		19.6 The Automobile Industry in Guangzhou
			19.6.1 The Honda Effect
			19.6.2 The Nissan Effect
			19.6.3 The Toyota Effect
		19.7 The High-tech Industry Agglomeration in the Zhongguancun Science Park
			19.7.1 Spin-offs
			19.7.2 The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)
			19.7.3 The Zhongguancun Science Park
			19.7.4 The Haidian Science Park (1992)
			19.7.5 The Tsinghua Science Park
			19.7.6 Regional Innovation Systems: The Beijing Municipal People’s Government and the Zhongguancun Science Park Management Committee
				19.7.6.1 Ordinances of the Zhongguancun Science Park Management Committee (2000)
				19.7.6.2 University–industry–government linkages: Innovation by partnerships between firms, universities, and research institutes
					19.7.6.2.1 cases (b), (c), (e): company a
					19.7.6.2.2 cases (d), (e), (g): tsinghua tongfang
			19.7.7 From Patents to Products
		19.8 Summary and Conclusions
		References
PART III: INDUSTRIAL HUBS, LABOUR, GENDER, AND THE ENVIRONMENT
	Chapter 20: Industrial Hubs and the IndustrialLabour Force inAfrica and Asia
		20.1 The Expansion of Industrial Hubs and Industrial Employment
		20.2 Hubs as Spaces of Labour Force Formation: Between Job Creationand Labour Control
		20.3 The Effects of Industrial Hubs on Job Creation and Working Conditions
			20.3.1 Employment
			20.3.2 Remuneration
			20.3.3 Non-wage Working Conditions
			20.3.4 Industrial Hubs as Spaces of Gendered Labour Dynamics
		20.4 Conclusion: Towards Decent Work in Industrial Hubs
		References
	Chapter 21: Gender, Industrialization, and Industrial Hubs
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Gender and IndustrialDevelopment
			21.2.1 Overview
			21.2.2 The Nexus of Gender Inequality and Industrialization: Theoretical and Empirical Linkages
		21.3 Women, Gender, and Industrial Hubs
			21.3.1 Effects of Hubs on Women and Gender Equality: An Analytic Framework
			21.3.2 Effects of Hubs on Women and Gender Equality: Empirical Evidence
				21.3.2.1 Employment
				21.3.2.2 Wages
				21.3.2.3 Working conditions
				21.3.2.4 Rights and benefits
				21.3.2.5 Empowerment
				21.3.2.6 Social impact
		21.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 22: Women, Working Conditions, and Industrial Hubs
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Opportunities and Challenges for Female Employment in Industrial Hubs and GVCs
		22.3 Governance of Work to Achieve Gender Equality
		22.4 Working Conditions and Women’sEmpowerment in Industrial Hubs: The Business Case
		22.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 23: Special Economic Zones in Latecomer Countries: Time to Bring Environmental Sustainability to the Fore
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Growth, Structural Transformation, and Sustainability
		23.3 The Broader Context of the Environmental Imperative
			23.3.1 The Climate Change Factor
			23.3.2 The Rise of Sustainability Standards
			23.3.3 The Evolution of the Development Finance Landscape
			23.4 The Strategic Dimension of Environmental Sustainability
			23.5 Conclusions
			Acknowledgement
			References
	Chapter 24: The Greening of Industrial Hubs: A Twenty-first-century Development Strategy
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Industrialization in the Twenty-first Century: Scale Effects
		24.3 Green vs Black Tendencies:China’s Experience, and Globally
		24.4 Global Expansion of Green Platforms and Cost Reduction
		24.5 Industrial Hubs: Industrial Dynamics in Suprafirm Structures
		24.6 Greening of Industrial Hubs
		24.7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 25: Greening Structural Transformation: What Role for Industrial Hubs?
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Greening Economies
		25.3 Rethinking Industrial Policy from a Green Transformation Perspective
		25.4 Green City Development
		25.5 Green Clusters
		25.6 Eco-Industrial Parks
		25.7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 26: Towards a New Generation of Special Economic Zones: Sustainable and Competitive
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 The Universe of SEZs
		26.3 The Impact of SEZs
			26.3.1 Economic Impact of SEZs
				26.3.1.1 Investment attraction
				26.3.1.2 Export generation and diversification
				26.3.1.3 Employment creation
				26.3.1.4 SEZs and GVC participation
			26.3.2 Industrial Development Ladder
			26.3.3 Social and Environmental Implications
			26.3.4 A Development Profit and Loss Statement
		26.4 Triple Challenges for SEZs
		26.5 Routes to a New Generation of SEZs
		26.6 SDG Model Zones
		26.7 Conclusion
		References
PART IV: POLICY AND PRACTICE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM ASIA
	Chapter 27: Industrial Hubs as Development Incubators: Asian Pioneers
		27.1 Asian Pioneers and IndustrialHubs: An Introduction
		27.2 East Asian Pioneers of Industrial Hubs: Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore
			27.2.1 Taiwan as a Pioneer of Industrial Hubs
				27.2.1.1 The genesis of industrial hubs in Taiwan
				27.2.1.2 Industrial deepening and restructuring
				27.2.1.3 Technological hubs and technological catch-up
				27.2.1.4 The second-mover advantage and its limits
			27.2.2 South Korea: Industrial Hubs and Catch-up
				27.2.2.1 Industrial hubs and industrial upgrading
				27.2.2.2 Industrial hubs and technological catch-up
				27.2.2.3 Summary
			27.2.3 Singapore: Catch-up and Strategic Approach to Industrial Hubs
				27.2.3.1 Industrial hubs and industrial upgrading
				27.2.3.2 FDI-driven technological learning
				27.2.3.3 Summary
		27.3 China: Second Mover and Innovator of Industrial Hubs
			27.3.1 The Formative Years (1978–85): Special Economic Zones as Experiment and FDI Vehicle
			27.3.2 The Growth Stage (1986–90s): A Rising Global Exporter and Manufacturing Powerhouse
			27.3.3 The Long March (1990s–): Technological Catch-up and Industrial Hubs
			27.3.4 Industrial Policy Framework and Hubs Development
				27.3.4.1 Tied to industrial policy framework
				27.3.4.2 Policy and technological learning
				27.3.4.3 The middle-income trap
			27.3.5 Summary
		27.4 A Synthesis of Industrial Hubs and Catch-up in East Asia
			27.4.1 A Context: Japan as a Role Model and the External Environment
			27.4.2 Strategic Approach and Industrial Policy Framework
			27.4.3 Dynamics of Industrial Hubs
			27.4.4 The Strategic Role of the State
		27.5 Conclusions: Commonality, Unevenness, and Differentiation
			27.5.1 Structural Transformation, Catch-up, and Industrial Hubs
			27.5.2 Drivers of Technological Catch-up and Industrial Hubs
			27.5.3 Policy Innovation and Learning
		Acknowledgement
		References
	Chapter 28: Explaining Reform and Special EconomicZones in China
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 The Origin, Varieties, and Evolution of SEZs in China
			28.2.1 History
			28.2.2 Varieties of Chinese SEZs
			28.2.3 Evolution
		28.3 SEZs as a Catalyst for the Transition from Planned Economy to Market Economy
		28.4 SEZs as the Engine of Structural Transformation
			28.4.1 Structural Transformation in China
			28.4.2 The Role of SEZs
		28.5 Distilling Ingredients of the Success of SEZs from a New Structural Economics Perspective
		28.6 Conclusion
		References
		28.4.1 Structural Transformation in China
	Chapter 29: Industrial Hubs in ‘Sphinx’ China
		29.1 An Evolutionary Typology of Industrial Parks in China
		29.2 Economic and Political Incentives under ‘Sphinx China’
		29.3 An Entrepreneurial Analysis of Industrial Hubs
		29.4 Fostering Initial Industrial Capacity
			29.4.1 Alleviating the Tragedy of the Anti-commons from Rent-extraction by Officials
		29.5 Concluding Remarks
		Acknowledgement
		References
	Chapter 30: Innovative Firms and High-tech Industrial Hubs in China
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 Beijing
		30.3 Shanghai
		30.4 Shenzhen
		30.5 Lessons from High-tech Industrial Hubs in China
		Acknowledgement
		References
	Chapter 31: Special Economic Zones in China and India: A Comparative Analysis
		31.1 Introduction
		31.2 Evolution of SEZs
		31.3 Institutional Arrangement of SEZs
		31.4 Economic Performance
		31.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 32: Taiwan’s Industrial Districts and Economic Development
		32.1 Introduction
		32.2 Antecedents of Clusters: Rural Industrialization
		32.3 Sectoral Comparisons
			32.3.1 Machine Tools
			32.3.2 Bicycles
		32.3.3 Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) Hardware Products
		32.3.4 Integrated Circuits
		32.4 A Cross-sectoral Comparison of Taiwan’s Clusters: Broader Policy Lessons
		References
	Chapter 33: Location Choice for Industrial Complexes in South Korea
		33.1 Introduction
		33.2 Urban Planning and Industrial Hubs
			33.2.1 The Interface between Industrial Policy and National Territorial Planning (AC in Figure 33.1)
			33.2.2 The Interface between Industrial Policy and Urban Planning (AB in Figure 33.1)
			33.2.3 The Interface between Urban Planning and National Territorial Planning (BC in Figure 33.1)
		33.3 Principles of Location Choice for Industrial Hubs: An Urban Planning Perspective
			33.3.1 Two Variables
				33.3.1.1 Industrial infrastructure
				33.3.1.2 Living environment
			33.3.2 Four Types
				33.3.2.1 Industrial annex of metropolis
				33.3.2.2 Town of factories
				33.3.2.3 New industrial city
				33.3.2.4 Metropolitan-immersed industrial hub
		33.4 Understanding Korean Industrial Complexes from the Urban Planning Perspective
			33.4.1 Guro Export Industrial Complex, an Industrial Annex of Seoul
			33.4.2 Gumi Industrial Complex, a Town of Factories
			33.4.3 Changwon, a New Industrial City
			33.4.4 Guro Digital Industrial Complex, a Metropolitan immersedIndustrial Hub
		33.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 34: A Review of Industrial Clusters, Industrial Policy, and Industrializationin South Korea
		34.1 Introduction
		34.2 History of Industrial Complex Strategies and the Promotion of Industrial Development
			34.2.1 Korean Industrial Complex Concepts
			34.2.2 Historical Overview of Industrial Complex Development Strategy
			34.2.3 A Timeline of Industrial Location Policies and Industrial Complex Development
				34.2.3.1 The 1960s: Supporting light industry exports and establishing the foundations for industrial complexes
				34.2.3.2 The 1970s: Building up a heavy chemicals industry and strengthening government leadership
				34.2.3.3 The 1980s: Even distribution of industrial complexes for balanced regional growth
				34.2.3.4 The 1990s: The creation of technology clusters and a realignment of industrial complex development systems
				34.2.3.5 The 2000s: Diversifying industrial locations and sharpening the competitive edge of industrial complexes
		34.3 Status and Objectives of CurrentIndustrial Location Policy
			34.3.1 Legal Structure
			34.3.2 Current State of Industrial Location PolicyAdministration
			34.3.3 Converting Industrial Complexes into Industrial Clusters
		34.4 Implications of Korean Industrial Location Policy
			34.4.1 Strategy: Set Achievable Targets and Adopt an Appropriate Development Strategy
			34.4.2 System: Establish Legislative Systems and Relevant Support Plans
			34.4.3 Operation: Organize Government-led Provision of Land and Infrastructure Support
			34.4.4 Relationships: Mediating Interests and Promoting Balanced Growth
		References
	Chapter 35: An Evidence-based Analysis of Industrial Hubs: The Singapore Narrative
		35.1 Introduction and Overview
		35.2 Historical Background of Singapore’s Economic Development
		35.3 Building Resilient Industrial Hubs: Getting the Fundamentals Right
			35.3.1 Vision and Key Institutions in Developing Industrial Hubs
			35.3.2 Preparing the Physical Basic Infrastructure to Kick-start Industrial Hubs
			35.3.3 Constant Upgrading of Industrial Hubs to Match Shifts in Global Production Networks
		35.4 Six Decades of Industrial Hubs Development
			35.4.1 The 1960s: Labour-intensive Industries
			35.4.2 The 1970s: Skills-intensive Industries
			35.4.3 The 1980s: Capital-intensive Industries
			35.4.4 The 1990s: Technology-driven Industries
			35.4.5 The 2000s: Knowledge-based Economy
			35.4.6 The 2010s: Innovation-oriented Economy
		35.5 Expansion and Synergies of Regional Industrial Hubs
		35.6 Conclusion and Responding to Future Challenges to Industrial Hubs
		Acknowledgement
		References
	Chapter 36: Industrialization and Industrial Hubs in Malaysia
		36.1 Theoretical Considerations
		36.2 Phases of Industrialization
			36.2.1 Phase I (1958–90)
				36.2.1.1 Import substitution
				36.2.1.2 Export orientation
				36.2.1.3 Heavy industrialization
				36.2.1.4 Renewed focus on export orientation
			36.2.2 Phase II (since 1991)
		36.3 Industrial Hubs
			36.3.1 Industrial Zones
			36.3.2 Export Processing Zones
			36.3.3 Science and Technology Parks
			36.3.4 Regional Corridors
		36.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 37: Industrial Policy and the Evolutionof Industrial Hubs in Vietnam
		37.1 The Background to Vietnam’s Economic Development Strategy and Industrialization Policy
		37.2 The Birth and Evolution of Industrial Hubs in Vietnam
			37.2.1 Prior to 1975: Before Unification
			37.2.2 From 1986: The Beginning of the Economic Reform Process
			37.2.3 From the First Export Processing Zone to the First Industrial Zone
			37.2.4 From Border Gate Economic Zones to Coastal Economic Zones
			37.2.5 High-tech Parks as a Means to Attract High-tech FDI
		37.3 Special Incentives for Industrial Hubs
		37.4 Industrial Hub Performance
			37.4.1 Industrial Zones and Export Processing Zones
			37.4.2 Border Gate Economic Zones
			37.4.3 Coastal Economic Zones
			37.4.4 High-tech Parks
			37.4.5 Special Economic Zones
			37.5 Contribution of Industrial Hubs to Vietnam’s Economic Development
			37.5.1 Industrial Hubs Help Catalyse Economic Reforms in Vietnam
			37.5.2 Encouraging Investment in Infrastructure Development
			37.5.3 Encouraging Investment in Potential Industries
			37.5.4 Promoting Economic and Labour Restructuring
			37.5.5 Upgrading Vietnamese Industries
			37.5.6 Promoting Economic Integration in Trade and Investment
			37.5.7 Migration, Population Redistribution, Job Creation, and Skills Development
			37.5.8 Generating Revenue for the State Budget
			37.5.9 Radical Transformation of Urban and Rural Life
		37.6 Drawbacks of the Economic Development Strategy and Industrial Hub Model in Vietnam
			37.6.1 Expansion: Too Fast and Too Many
			37.6.2 Inefficient Land Conversion
			37.6.3 Reliance on Fiscal Incentives rather than Competitive Advantage
			37.6.4 Low-skilled and Unskilled Labour
			37.6.5 Low Technological Level, Limited Technological Transfer
			37.6.6 Environmental Pollution
			37.6.7 Slow Progress in Human Resource Quality and Science and Technology Capability
		37.7 A Political-economy Explanation of Vietnam’s Development of Industrial Hubs
		37.8 Lessions Learned from Successful Industrial Hubs in Vietnam
			37.8.1 Location is Key to Success
			37.8.2 Quality Infrastructure is a Prerequisite
			37.8.3 Good Business Environment and Streamlined Administrative Procedures
			37.8.4 Selecting a Competent and Resourceful IH Developer
			37.8.5 Fiscal Incentives are Important, but Knowing How to Incentivize is Even More Important
			37.8.6 Leadership Commitment and Consensus is Important to Produce Policy Consistency
		37.9 Conclusion
		References
PART V: POLICY AND PRACTICE: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM LATIN AMERICA
	Chapter 38: Industrialization in Latin America: A Critical Review
		38.1 Introduction
		38.2 The Impact of Productive Development Policies in Latin America
		38.3 Structural Change in Latin America: New Wine into Old Wineskins?
		38.4 Towards a New Industrial Policy Agenda
		38.5 Final Remarks
		Acknowledgement
		References
	Chapter 39: The Development of Knowledge-based Export Clusters: Lessons from Costa Rica and Mexico
		39.1 Thirty Years of Productive Transformation
		39.2 The Origins of Export-oriented Manufacture in Costa Rica and Mexico
		39.3 Background to Economic Transformation
			39.3.1 Mexico: The Bumpier Road
			39.3.2 Costa Rica: Graduality and Stability
		39.4 High-Tech FDI: The Early Years
		39.5 Policymaking and Public‒Private Dialogue in Costa Rica and Jalisco
			39.5.1 Costa Rica: A Divided Society
			39.5.2 Jalisco: Shared Vision, Collaboration, and Public Orientation
		39.6 Recent FDI Attraction and Export Performance
		39.7 Drivers of Economic Transformation: Some Striking Communalities
			39.7.1 Labour Force: Quality and Productivity
			39.7.2 Vertical Application of Horizontal Productive Development Instruments
			39.7.3 Support of Self-revealing Winners rather than a priori Choice of Winners
				39.7.3.1 The role of the private sector
				39.7.3.2 The role of national CEOs
		39.8 Limiting Factors
			39.8.1 The Governance Structure of GVCs
			39.8.2 Development of Domestic Suppliers and the SME Myth
			39.8.3 Human Resource Development
			39.8.4 Urban Development and Economies of Agglomeration
		39.9 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 40: Modern Industrial Policy in Latin America: Lessons from Cluster Development Policies
		40.1 Key Traits of Modern
Industrial Policy
		40.2 Productive Agglomeration
and Coordination Failures
			40.2.1. Economies of Geographical Agglomeration
			40.2.2 Coordination Failures
		40.3 Cluster Development Policies as Examples of ‘Modern’ Industrial Policy
		40.4 Cluster Development
Policies in Latin America
		40.5 An Example: The Tambaú
Red Tile Cluster in the State
of Sao Paulo, Brazil
		40.6 Do Cluster Development
Policies Work?
		40.7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 41: Latin American Industrialization: Unfulfilled Expectations and Future Opportunities
		41.1 The Latin American
Industrialization Process
			41.1.1 Unfulfilled Expectations and Future Opportunities
			41.1.2 Back to Natural Resources, but from a Different Technological, Environmental, and Social Inclusion Perspective
		41.2 Case Studies, ‘Appreciative Theorizing’, and a New Way of Approaching the Conceptualization of Industrial Policy Issues
			41.2.1 Industry Inception
			41.2.2 Industry Growth, Changes in Firm Size and Production Organization, New Institutions, and the Evolving Nature of Industrial Policies
			41.2.3 Environmental Mismanagement and the Making of a Sanitary Crisis
			41.2.4 Resilience: Response of Firms and Government Agencies to the Sanitary Crisis
			41.2.5 Looking to the Future
		41.3 Back to the Future: Macro and Micro Issues Underlying the Long-term Latin American Growth Process
		References
	Chapter 42: Industrial Hubs and Structural Transformation in Latin America: Lessons from Costa Rica
		42.1 Introduction
		42.2 Industrial Hubs and Structural Transformation: An Analytical Framework
		42.3 Industrial Hubs: A Centrepiece of Costa Rica’s New Economic Model
			42.3.1 Background: From ISI to a New Economic Model
			42.3.2 Industrial Hubs: Policies, Institutions, and Context
		42.4 Industrial Hubs and Structural Transformation
			42.4.1 Transformation of the Structure of Production and Exports
			42.4.2 FTZ Impacts on Employment, Foreign Exchange, and Taxes
			42.4.3 Why Costa Rica?
			42.4.4 Linkages and Knowledge Spillovers
		42.5 An Uneven Playing Field: A Tale of Two Economies
		42.6 Lessons from the Costa Rican Experience
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 43: Industrial Hubs, Industrial Policy, and Economic Development in Mexico
		43.1 Introduction
		43.2 Industrial Hubs: A Typology Proposal for the Mexican Case
			43.2.1 The Industrial Hub Based on the Foreign Maquila
			43.2.2 The Industrial Hub Based on the Cluster Model
			43.2.3 The Industrial Hub Based on Innovation
		43.3 Case Examples of the Three Types of Industrial Hub
			43.3.1 Baja California
			43.3.2 Querétaro
			43.3.3 Nuevo León
		43.4 Discussion and Challenges
		43.5 General Public PolicyRecommendations
		References
	Chapter 44: FDI, Industrial Hubs,
and Latin American
Industrialization:
		44.1 Introduction
		44.2 Setting the Stage: FDI as a Catalyst for Growth and Development
		44.3 Overview of SEZs in LAC
		44.4 Performance of SEZs
		44.5 SEZs’ Critical Features to Attract FDI
			44.5.1 SEZs Must be Embedded in National and/or Regional Development Plans, with Strong Political Support and Clear Objectives, and Aligned with Comparative Advantages
			44.5.2 SEZs need to be Anchored in Specialized Regimes Embedded in Clear Legal Frameworks, Supported by Effective Institutions and Subject to Monitoring and Evaluation
			44.5.3 Location is Key to Ensuring Exploitation of Advantages in Natural and Economic Geographies, while Potentially Spearheading Cluster Development
			44.5.4 High-quality and Cost-effective Infrastructure and Services, as well as Efficient Management of Zones, are a Critical Driver of SEZ Performance
		44.6 Global Businesses, the Future of SEZs and Opportunities for Latin American Countries
			44.6.1 Emerging Trends
				44.6.1.1 New technologies, global value chains, and the attractiveness of investment locations
				44.6.1.2 Geopolitics, policy factors, and the push to reconfigure the governance of trade
				44.6.1.3 Sustainability
			44.6.2 Opportunities for Latin America to Attract Investment
		44.7 Conclusions and Future Considerations
		Acknowledgement
		References
PART VI: POLICY AND PRACTICE: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM AFRICA
	Chapter 45: A Strategic Approach to Industrial Hubs: Learnings in Ethiopia
		45.1 Introduction to Learnings in Ethiopia: The Journey and Approach
		45.2 Strategic Approach and the Anatomy of Industrial Hubs
			45.2.1 Obstacles to Structural Transformation and Policy Learning
			45.2.2 Strategies of Industrial Hubs
				45.2.2.1 A focus on specialized industrial parks
					45.2.2.1.1 Linkage effects
					45.2.2.1.2 Industrial clustering
					45.2.2.1.3 Skills formation and learning
					45.2.2.1.4 Common facilities
					45.2.2.1.5 Policy incentives
				45.2.2.2 Adhering to sustainability standards and building eco-industrial parks
			45.2.3 Financing, Construction, and Operations of Industrial Parks: The Formative Years
				45.2.3.1 Private developers
				45.2.3.2 Financing
				45.2.3.3 Subsidies and incentives
				45.2.3.4 Park development
				45.2.3.5 Park operations
		45.3 Location, Infrastructure, and Urban Ecosystem
			45.3.1 Urban Ecosystem and Agglomeration
			45.3.2 Location Selection and National Network of Industrial Parks
			45.3.3 National Infrastructure Systems
		45.4 Strategic Approach to Production Capability and Industrial Hubs
			45.4.1 Industrial Policy and Productive Capacity
			45.4.2 Production Investment: Manufacturing FDI as a Key Driver
			45.4.3 Domestic Capabilities: Domestic Learning and Linkages
				45.4.3.1 Building an industrial workforce
				45.4.3.2 Building domestic firms and linkages
			45.4.4 Anchor Firms and Cluster Dynamism
			45.4.5 Network of Learning Institutions and Linkages
		45.5 Strategic Approach: Governance and Institutional Framework
			45.5.1 Institutionalization of a New Generation of Industrial Hubs
			45.5.2 Legislative and Regulatory System: A Key Feature of the Formative Stage
				45.5.2.1 Decrees and proclamations
				45.5.2.2 Executive Directives of EIB
			45.5.3 Instituting Executive Agencies
		45.6 A Synthesis of Learning and Policy Innovation
			45.6.1 Dynamics of Learning
			45.6.2 Policy Dilemmas and Imbalances
		45.7 Conclusions
			45.7.1 A Summary of Lessons, Progress, and Constraints
			45.7.2 Learning Dynamics and Latecomer Advantages
			45.7.3 Complex Ecosystem and Web of Institutions
			45.7.4 Industrial Policy Framework
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 46: Hubs Development
and Industrial
Upgrading in
Mauritius
		46.1 Introduction
		46.2 Theoretical Overview
		46.3 Industrial Policy in Mauritius
		46.4 The Mauritius Export Processing Zone
		46.5 The Gender Dimension of EPZ Employment
		46.6 Challenges and Upgrading
		46.7 Recent Strategies
		46.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 47: Industrial Hubs and
Technology Transfer
in Africa’s Apparel
Export Sector
		47.1 Introduction
		47.2 Development of Apparel Export Sectors within sub-Saharan African SEZs
		47.3 Explaining the Extent of Technology Transfer
			47.3.1 Mauritius
			47.3.2 Madagascar
			47.3.3 Kenya
			47.3.4 Lesotho and Swaziland
			47.3.5 Ethiopia
		47.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 48: Chinese Economic and
Trade Cooperation
Zones in Africa
		48.1 Genesis: A New Platform for Attracting FDI and Industrialization
		48.2 Successful Zone Development and Structural Transformation
		48.3 Delays and Challenges in the China–Africa Cooperation Zones
			48.3.1 Infrastructure
			48.3.2 Administration and Management
			48.3.3 Linkage with Local Industries
			48.3.4 Policy and Strategy
		48.4 Approaches to Improved Synergism
			48.4.1 Chinese Initiatives
			48.4.2 African Initiatives
		48.5 Conclusion
		Acknowledgement
		References
	Chapter 49: Legal Framework for Industrial Hubs: A Critical Review and Lessons for Africa
		49.1 Introduction
		49.2 The Theoretical and Legal Architecture of Industrial Hubs
			49.2.1 International Sources of Law
			49.2.2 Domestic Sources of Law
		49.3 Industrial Hubs Law in Comparative Context
			49.3.1 China
			49.3.2 India
				49.3.2.1 Simplified procedures
			49.3.3 Republic of South Korea
				49.3.3.1 Designation requirements
				49.3.3.2 Development project operator
			49.3.4 Mauritius
				49.3.4.1 Labour standards
			49.3.5 Ethiopia
			49.3.6 Ukraine
		49.4 Comparative Analysis and Lessons for Africa
		49.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 50: Industrialization and Industrial Hubs: Experiences in Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania
		50.1 Introduction
		50.2 The Impact of SEZs: Definitions and Conceptual Issues
			50.2.1 What are SEZs?
			50.2.2 Measuring the Role of SEZs in Industrialization and Economic Transformation
			50.2.3 What Can We Learn from Successful SEZs?
				50.2.3.1 Zone design
				50.2.3.2 Zone performance
				50.2.3.3 Zone linkages and productivity spillovers
		50.3 Experiences in African SEZs
			50.3.1 General Experiences in African Zones
			50.3.2 Kenya
				50.3.2.1 Zone design
				50.3.2.2 Zone performance
				50.3.2.3 Zone linkages and spillover benefits
			50.3.3 Rwanda
				50.3.3.1 Zone design
				50.3.3.2 Zone performance
				50.3.3.3 Zone linkages and spillover benefits
			50.3.4 Tanzania
				50.3.4.1 Zone design
				50.3.4.2 Zone performance
				50.3.4.3 Zone linkages and spillover benefits
		50.4 Lessons from African SEZ Experiences
		50.5 Conclusion and Implications
		References
	Chapter 51: Special Economic Zones in Sub-Saharan Africa: What Drives their Mixed Performance?
		51.1 Definitions and Rationale
		51.2 SEZs in Africa
		51.3 Case Analysis of African SEZs
		51.4 The Key Drivers of Successful SEZs
			51.4.1 Legal and Regulatory Framework
			51.4.2 Government Commitment and Public Services
			51.4.3 Zone-level Governance
			51.4.4 Industrial Infrastructure
			51.4.5 Location and Connectivity
			51.4.6 Human Resources
			51.4.7 Market Demand
		51.5 Key Lessons
		Acknowledgements
		References
PART VII: SYNTHESIS AND PATHWAYS TO THE FUTURE
	Chapter 52: Cluster-based Policies: What Have We Learned?
		52.1 Introduction
		52.2 The Concept, the Economics, and the Rationale for Cluster Policies
		52.3 The Cluster Approach under a New Light: Cluster Policy and Process as ‘Experimentalist Governance’
			52.3.1 What is Experimentalist Governance?
			52.3.2 How does this Conceptualization of Experimentalism Relate to Cluster Policies and Initiatives as a Type of Productive Development Policy?
		52.4 Cluster Development Policies and their Governance: A Review of Two Experiences
			52.4.1 Autonomous Community of the Basque Country
			52.4.2 Agricultural Machinery Cluster in Argentina
		52.5 Concluding Remarks
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 53: Global Value Chains, Industrial Hubs, and Economic Development in the Twenty-first Century
		53.1 Introduction
		53.2 The Global Value Chains Framework
		53.3 Industrial Hubs from a GVC Perspective
		53.4 The Athletic Footwear GVC: From the Asian Production Model to Incipient Automation
			53.4.1 The Asian-Based Production Model: Efficient but Slow
			53.4.2 Sourcing Shifts: China Down, Vietnam Surging, and Indonesia Emerging
		53.5 Adidas: The Need for Speed Drives Factory Automation
			53.5.1 Adidas’s Speedfactory—Automation in the Footwear Industry
		53.6 Nike: Using Technology to Connect with Consumers
			53.6.1 The Nike-Flex Automation Partnership: A Cautionary Tale
		53.7 The Electronics GVC: From Factory Cities to Lights-off Factories
			53.7.1 Foxconn’s Industrial Hubs in China and Beyond
			53.7.2 Foxconn’s Lights-off Factories
		53.8 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 54: The Impact of Decentralization on Industrial Hubs: Blockchain and the Digital Economy
		54.1 Introduction
		54.2 Blockchain as a Step in the Digital Technology Revolution
			54.2.1 Digital Technology
			54.2.2 Blockchain as a Digital Technology
			54.2.3 How Policymakers Interpret the Technology–Growth Connection
		54.3 Geography: Economics of Industrial Hubs and Global Value Chains
			54.3.1 The WTO as a Promoter of Specialization
			54.3.2 Fragmentation of GVCs
			54.3.3 Blockchain Lacks Territoriality
		54.4 Regulation: Blockchain, Hubs, and Multilateral Trade Rules
			54.4.1 Data Governance
			54.4.2 WTO Digital Provisions
			54.4.3 Exceptions to Rules of Origin
		54.5 Is Data Creating New Hubs?
			54.5.1 Adoption
			54.5.2 What Data is Captured?
			54.5.3 New Hubs
		54.6 Blockchain and Sustainability
			54.6.1 Can Hubs Facilitate Sustainable Supply Chains?
			54.6.2 The Little Problem of Standards
		54.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 55: The Economics of Agglomeration
		55.1 Introduction
		55.2 Understanding the Drivers of Economic Agglomeration
		55.3 A Blueprint for Creating Agglomeration Economies
			55.3.1 Clustering through Special Economic Zones
				55.3.1.1 How best to do this?
			55.3.2 Skills Enhancement Zones to Sustain Clustering
		55.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 56: Industry 4.0 and Impacts on Industrial Hubs
		56.1 Introduction
		56.2 Digital Technologies and the International Division of Labour
			56.2.1 The Smile Curve
			56.2.2 Digital Technologies, the Geography of Manufacturing, and the Provision of Services
				56.2.2.1 Robotization and the geography of manufacturing
				56.2.2.2 Other digital technologies and the geography of manufacturing
			56.2.3 Digital Technologies and Remote Provision of Services
		56.3 Digitalization and Industrial Hubs
			56.3.1 Industrial Hubs as Pockets of Digital Infrastructure and Skills
			56.3.2 Industrial Hubs as an Instrument of Digital Industrial Policy
				56.3.2.1 Providing a data-management framework
				56.3.2.2 Changing the approach towards FDI
				56.3.2.3 Focusing on the demand side
				56.3.2.4 Functioning as digital innovation hubs
					56.3.2.4.1 China’s digital innovation hub: from shenzhen to ‘shanzhai’
					56.3.2.4.2 Republic of korea: turning industrial complexes intoinnovation clusters
					56.3.2.4.3 Thailand’s digital park: a public-private partnership
					56.3.2.4.4 Digital innovation hubs and start-ups
			56.3.3 Industrial Hubs and Levels of Industrialization
		56.4 Conclusions: Industrial Hubs in a Digital World
		References
	Chapter 57: Industrial Hubs and Economic Development: Conclusions and Pathways to the Future
		57.1 Industrial Hubs and Economic Development: An Overview
		57.2 Drivers of Cluster Dynamism: Implications for Successes and Failures
			57.2.1 Variety and Diversity as Key Features of Industrial Hubs
			57.2.2 Strategic Perspectives on Industrial Hubs
			57.2.3 Cluster Dynamics and Industrial Hubs
			57.2.4 Sectoral Perspective and Industrial Hubs
			57.2.5 Emerging Issues and Industrial Hubs
			57.2.6 Environmental Sustainability and Industrial Hubs
			57.2.7 Technological Advancement and Industrial Hubs
			57.2.8 Urbanization, Urban Transformation, and Industrial Hubs
			57.2.9 Shifts in the Global Economy and Industrial Hubs
		57.3 Conclusion: Learning and Latecomer Advantage
		Acknowledgement
		References
Name Index
Subject Index