The Cultural Nature of Human Development

Contents......Page 11
1 Orienting Concepts and Ways of Understanding the Cultural Nature of Human Development......Page 19
Looking for Cultural Regularities......Page 23
One Set of Patterns: Children's Age-Grading and Segregation from Community Endeavors or Participation in Mature Activities......Page 24
Other Patterns......Page 25
Orienting Concepts for Understanding Cultural Processes......Page 26
Moving Beyond Initial Assumptions......Page 29
Beyond Ethnocentrism and Deficit Models......Page 31
Separating Value Judgments from Explanations......Page 33
Ideas of Linear Cultural Evolution......Page 34
Moving Beyond Assumptions of a Single Goal of Human Development......Page 36
Learning through Insider/Outsider Communication......Page 40
Outsiders' Position......Page 42
Insiders' Position......Page 44
Moving between Local and Global Understandings......Page 45
Revising Understanding in Derived Etic Approaches......Page 46
The Meaning of the "Same" Situation across Communities......Page 48
2 Development as Transformation of Participation in Cultural Activities......Page 53
A Logical Puzzle for Researchers......Page 54
An Example: "We always speak only of what we see"......Page 55
Researchers Questioning Assumptions......Page 57
Concepts Relating Cultural and Individual Development......Page 58
Whiting and Whiting's Psycho-Cultural Model......Page 59
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System......Page 60
Descendents......Page 64
Issues in Diagramming the Relation of Individual and Cultural Processes......Page 65
Sociocultural-Historical Theory......Page 66
Development as Transformation of Participation in Sociocultural Activity......Page 68
Humans Are Biologically Cultural......Page 79
Prepared Learning by Infants and Young Children......Page 83
Where Do Gender Differences Come From?......Page 87
Culture as a Categorical Property of Individuals versus a Process of Participation in Dynamically Related Cultural Communities......Page 93
The Case of Middle-Class European American Cultural Communities......Page 101
Conceiving of Communities across Generations......Page 105
4 Child Rearing in Families and Communities......Page 118
Family Composition and Governments......Page 120
Cultural Strategies for Child Survival and Care......Page 122
Maternal Attachment under Severe Conditions......Page 127
Infants' Security of Attachment......Page 130
Attachment to Whom?......Page 132
Extended Families......Page 134
Differentiation of Caregiving, Companion, and Socializing Roles......Page 137
Sibling Caregiving and Peer Relations......Page 138
The Community as Caregiver......Page 144
Access to Mature Community Activities......Page 149
"Pitching in" from Early Childhood......Page 151
Excluding Children and Youth from Labor—and from Productive Roles......Page 154
Adults "Preparing" Children or Children Joining Adults......Page 156
Engaging in Groups or Dyads......Page 157
Infant Orientation: Face-to-Face with Caregiver versus Oriented to the Group......Page 158
Dyadic versus Group Prototypes for Social Relations......Page 160
Dyadic versus Multiparty Group Relations in Schooling......Page 163
5 Developmental Transitions in Individuals' Roles in Their Communities......Page 166
Age as a Cultural Metric for Development......Page 168
Developmental Transitions Marking Change in Relation to the Community......Page 173
Rates of Passing Developmental "Milestones"......Page 175
Age Timing of Learning......Page 176
Mental Testing......Page 177
Development as a Racetrack......Page 178
According Infants a Unique Social Status......Page 179
Contrasting Treatment of Toddlers and Older Siblings......Page 180
Continuities and Discontinuities across Early Childhood......Page 181
Responsible Roles in Childhood......Page 184
Onset of Responsibility at Age 5 to 7?......Page 185
Maturation and Experience......Page 186
Adolescence as a Special Stage......Page 187
Initiation to Manhood and Womanhood......Page 190
Marriage and Parenthood as Markers of Adulthood......Page 192
Midlife in Relation to Maturation of the Next Generation......Page 195
Gender Roles......Page 197
The Centrality of Child Rearing and Household Work in Gender Role Specializations......Page 199
Sociohistorical Changes over Millennia in Mothers' and Fathers' Roles......Page 200
Sociohistorical Changes in Recent Centuries in U.S. Mothers' and Fathers' Roles......Page 202
Occupational Roles and Power of Men and Women......Page 206
Gender and Social Relations......Page 208
6 Interdependence and Autonomy......Page 210
Sleeping "Independently"......Page 211
Social Relations in Cosleeping......Page 213
Independence versus Interdependence with Autonomy......Page 216
Individual Freedom of Choice in an Interdependent System......Page 218
Learning to Cooperate, with Freedom of Choice......Page 219
Adult-Child Cooperation and Control......Page 223
Parental Discipline......Page 224
Teachers' Discipline......Page 227
Teasing and Shaming as Indirect Forms of Social Control......Page 233
Moral Reasoning......Page 237
Morality as Individual Rights or Harmonious Social Order......Page 238
Learning the Local Moral Order......Page 240
Mandatory and Discretionary Concepts in Moral Codes......Page 241
Cooperation and Competition......Page 243
Cooperative versus Competitive Behavior in Games......Page 244
Schooling and Competition......Page 245
7 Thinking with the Tools and Institutions of Culture......Page 252
Specific Contexts Rather Than General Ability: Piaget around the World......Page 254
Schooling Practices in Cognitive Tests: Classification and Memory......Page 257
Classification......Page 258
Memory......Page 259
Cultural Values of Intelligence and Maturity......Page 262
Familiarity with the Interpersonal Relations used in Tests......Page 263
Varying Definitions of Intelligence and Maturity......Page 265
Generalizing Experience from One Situation to Another......Page 269
Learning to Fit Approaches Flexibly to Circumstances......Page 271
Literacy......Page 274
Mathematics......Page 277
Other Conceptual Systems......Page 282
Distributed Cognition in the Use of Cultural Tools for Thinking......Page 286
Cognition beyond the Skull......Page 287
Collaboration in Thinking across Time and Space......Page 288
Collaboration Hidden in the Design of Cognitive Tools and Procedures......Page 290
An Example: Sociocultural Development in Writing Technologies and Techniques......Page 292
Crediting the Cultural Tools and Practices We Think With......Page 294
8 Learning through Guided Participation in Cultural Endeavors......Page 298
Mutual Bridging of Meanings......Page 301
Mutual Structuring of Participation......Page 303
Distinctive Forms of Guided Participation......Page 317
Academic Lessons in the Family......Page 318
Talk or Taciturnity, Gesture, and Gaze......Page 326
Intent Participation in Community Activities......Page 333
9 Cultural Change and Relations among Communities......Page 343
Living the Traditions of Multiple Communities......Page 345
Conflict among Cultural Groups......Page 347
Transformations through Cultural Contact across Human History......Page 350
An Individual's Experience of Uprooting Culture Contact......Page 351
Community Changes through Recent Cultural Contacts......Page 353
Western Schooling as a Locus of Culture Change......Page 356
Schooling as a Foreign Mission......Page 358
Schooling as a Colonial Tool......Page 360
Schooling as a Tool of U.S. Western Expansion......Page 362
The Persistence of Traditional Ways in Changing Cultural Systems......Page 363
Contrasting Ideas of Life Success......Page 366
Intervention in Cultural Organization of Community Life......Page 368
Dynamic Cultural Processes: Building on More Than One Way......Page 371
Learning New Ways and Keeping Cultural Traditions in Communities Where Schooling Has Not Been Prevalent......Page 372
Immigrant Families Borrowing New Practices to Build on Cultural Traditions......Page 374
Learning New Ways and Keeping Cultural Traditions in Communities Where Schooling Has Been Central......Page 376
Cultural Variety as an Opportunity for Learning—for Individuals and Communities......Page 377
The Creative Process of Learning from Cultural Variation......Page 378
A Few Regularities......Page 382
Concluding with a Return to the Orienting Concepts......Page 383
References......Page 387
Credits......Page 429
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