The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution

Brief Contents......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 15
Ch 1: Understanding Earth: A Dynamic and Evolving Planet......Page 22
 1.2: What is Geology?......Page 24
 1.3: Geology and the Formulation of Theories......Page 25
 1.5: How Does Geology Affect Our Everyday Lives?......Page 26
 1.6: Global Geologic and Environmental Issues Facing Humankind......Page 27
 1.7: Origin of the Universe and Solar System, and Earth\'s Place in Them......Page 30
 Geo-Insight 1.1: Mars-The \"Red Planet\"......Page 34
 1.8: Why Earth is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet......Page 36
 1.9: The Rock Cycle......Page 38
 1.10: Organic Evolution and the History of Life......Page 41
 1.11: Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism......Page 42
 1.12: How Does the Study of Geology Benefit Us?......Page 43
Ch 2: Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory......Page 46
 2.2: Early Ideas About Continental Drift......Page 48
 2.3: What is the Evidence for Continental Drift?......Page 49
 2.4: Features of the Seafloor......Page 52
 2.5: Earth\'s Magnetic Field......Page 55
 2.6: Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering......Page 56
 2.7: Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading......Page 57
 2.9: The Three Types of Plate Boundaries......Page 60
 Geo-Insight 2.1: Plate Boundaries, Earthquakes, and Tsunami......Page 62
 2.10: Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes......Page 69
 2.11: Plate Movement and Motion......Page 70
 2.12: The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics......Page 71
 2.13: Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources......Page 73
 2.14: Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Life......Page 75
Ch 3: Minerals-The Building Blocks of Rocks......Page 80
 3.1: Introduction......Page 82
 3.2: Matter-What is It?......Page 83
 Geo-Insight 3.1: The Precious Metals and Gemstones......Page 84
 3.3: Explore the World of Minerals......Page 88
 3.4: Mineral Groups Recognized by Geologists......Page 91
 3.5: Mineral Identification......Page 95
 3.6: Rock-Forming Minerals......Page 97
 3.7: How Do Minerals Form?......Page 98
 3.8: Economic Geology......Page 99
Ch 4: Igneous Rocks and Plutons......Page 106
 4.2: The Properties and Behavior of Magma and Lava......Page 108
 4.3: How Does Magma Originate and Change?......Page 110
 4.4: Igneous Rocks-Their Characteristics and Classification......Page 115
 Geo-Focus 4.1: Granite-Common, Attractive, and Useful......Page 120
 4.5: Intrusive Igneous Bodies-Plutons......Page 123
 4.6: The Origin of Batholiths......Page 126
Ch 5: Volcanoes and Volcanism......Page 130
 5.1: Introduction......Page 132
 5.2: Volcanoes and Volcanism......Page 133
 Geo-Focus 5.1: Do Volcanic Gases Cause Ozone Depletion?......Page 136
 5.3: Types of Volcanoes......Page 139
 5.4: Other Volcanic Landforms......Page 146
 5.5: Volcano Belts......Page 147
 5.6: North America\'s Active Volcanoes......Page 148
 5.7: Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes, and Plutons......Page 149
 5.8: Volcanic Hazards, Volcano Monitoring, and Forecasting Eruptions......Page 151
Ch 6: Weathering, Erosion, and Soil......Page 156
 6.1: Introduction......Page 158
 6.3: Mechanical Weathering-Disaggregation of Earth Materials......Page 159
 6.4: Chemical Weathering-Decomposition of Earth Materials......Page 161
 Geo-Focus 6.1: Industrialization and Acid Rain......Page 162
 6.5: Soil and Its Origin......Page 166
 6.6: Expansive Soils and Soil Degradation......Page 170
 6.7: Weathering and Resources......Page 174
Ch 7: Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks......Page 178
 7.2: Sediment Sources, Transport, and Deposition......Page 180
 7.3: How Does Sediment Become Sedimentary Rock?......Page 181
 7.4: Types of Sedimentary Rocks......Page 182
 7.6: Sedimentary Rocks-The Archives of Earth History......Page 187
 Geo-Insight 7.1: Fossilization......Page 192
 Geo-Focus 7.1: State Fossils......Page 195
 7.7: Sedimentary Rocks and Economic Geology......Page 196
Ch 8: Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks......Page 200
 8.1: Introduction......Page 202
 8.2: The Agents of Metamorphism......Page 203
 Geo-Focus 8.1: Asbestos: Good or Bad?......Page 204
 8.3: The Three Types of Metamorphism......Page 206
 8.4: How Are Metamorphic Rocks Classified?......Page 209
 8.5: Metamorphic Zones and Facies......Page 214
 8.6: Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism......Page 215
 8.7: Metamorphism and Natural Resources......Page 216
Ch 9: Earthquakes and Earth\'s Interior......Page 220
 9.1: Introduction......Page 222
 9.2: Elastic Rebound Theory......Page 223
 9.3: Seismology......Page 224
 9.4: Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?......Page 225
 9.5: Seismic Waves......Page 227
 9.6: Locating an Earthquake......Page 228
 9.7: Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake......Page 229
 9.8: What Are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?......Page 234
 Geo-Insight 9.1: Designing and Building Earthquake-Resistant Structures......Page 236
 9.9: Earthquake Prediction......Page 240
 Geo-Focus 9.1: Paleoseismology......Page 242
 9.10: Earthquake Control......Page 244
 9.11: What Is Earth\'s Interior Like?......Page 246
 9.12: The Core......Page 248
 9.13: Earth\'s Mantle......Page 249
 9.16: Earth\'s Crust......Page 250
Ch 10: Deformation, Mountain Building, and Earth\'s Crust......Page 254
 10.2: Rock Deformation-How Does It Occur?......Page 256
 10.4: Deformation and Geologic Structures......Page 258
 10.5: Deformation and the Origin of Mountains......Page 264
 Geo-Focus 10.1: Engineering and Geology......Page 266
 10.6: Earth\'s Crust......Page 272
Ch 11: Mass Wasting......Page 276
 11.2: Factors That Influence Mass Wasting......Page 278
 11.3: Types of Mass Wasting......Page 283
 Geo-Focus 11.1: Southern California Landslides......Page 286
 11.4: Recognizing and Minimizing the Effects of Mass Wasting......Page 296
Ch 12: Running Water-Streams and Rivers......Page 302
 12.2: Water on Earth......Page 304
 12.3: Running Water......Page 306
 12.5: Deposition by Running Water......Page 308
 12.6: Can Floods Be Predicted and Controlled?......Page 313
 Geo-Focus 12.1: The Mississippi River Delta-Past and Present......Page 314
 Geo-Insight 12.1: The Mississippi River Floods of 1993 and 2011......Page 316
 12.7: Drainage Systems......Page 319
 12.8: The Evolution of Valleys......Page 322
 12.9: Water as a Natural Resource......Page 325
Ch 13: Groundwater......Page 328
 13.3: Porosity and Permeability......Page 330
 13.4: The Water Table......Page 331
 13.6: Springs, Water Wells, and Artesian Systems......Page 332
 13.7: Groundwater Erosion and Deposition......Page 335
 13.8: Modification of the Groundwater System and Its Effects......Page 338
 Geo-Focus 13.1: Hydraulic Fracturing: Pros and Cons......Page 340
 Geo-Insight 13.1: Arsenic and Old Lace......Page 346
 13.9: Hydrothermal Activity......Page 349
Ch 14: Glaciers and Glaciation......Page 356
 14.2: The Kinds of Glaciers......Page 358
 14.3: Glaciers-Moving Bodies of Ice on Land......Page 359
 Geo-Insight 14.1: The Little Ice Age......Page 360
 14.4: The Glacial Budget......Page 364
 Geo-Focus 14.1: Glaciers and Global Warming......Page 366
 14.5: Erosion and Sediment Transport by Glaciers......Page 368
 14.6: Glacial Deposits......Page 373
 14.7: What Causes Ice Ages?......Page 378
Ch 15: The Work of Wind and Deserts......Page 382
 15.2: Sediment Transport by Wind......Page 384
 15.3: Wind Erosion......Page 386
 15.4: Wind Deposits......Page 387
 15.5: Air-Pressure Belts and Global Wind Patterns......Page 391
 15.6: The Distribution of Deserts......Page 392
 15.7: Characteristics of Deserts......Page 394
 15.8: Desert Landforms......Page 396
 Geo-Focus 15.1: Windmills and Wind Power......Page 398
Ch 16: Oceans, Shorelines, and Shoreline Processes......Page 404
 16.1: Introduction......Page 406
 16.2: Exploring the Oceans......Page 407
 16.3: Seawater and Oceanic Circulation......Page 408
 16.4: Shorelines and Shoreline Processes......Page 409
 Geo-Focus 16.1: Energy from the Oceans......Page 412
 16.5: Shoreline Erosion and Deposition......Page 418
 16.6: Types of Coasts......Page 424
 16.7: The Perils of Living Near a Shoreline......Page 426
 16.8: The Oceans and Economic Geology......Page 429
Ch 17: Geologic Time: Concepts and Principles......Page 432
 17.3: Early Concepts of Geologic Time and Earth\'s Age......Page 434
 17.4: James Hutton and the Recognition of Geologic Time......Page 435
 Geo-Focus 17.1: The Anthropocene: A New Geologic Epoch?......Page 436
 17.5: Relative Dating Methods......Page 439
 17.6: Correlating Rock Units......Page 449
 17.7: Absolute Dating Methods......Page 452
 17.8: Development of the Geologic Time Scale......Page 457
 17.9: Stratigraphy and Stratigraphic Terminology......Page 458
 17.10: Geologic Time and Climate Change......Page 461
Ch 18: Organic Evolution-TheTheory and Its Supporting Evidence......Page 466
 18.1: Introduction......Page 468
 18.2: Organic Evolution: What Does It Mean?......Page 469
 18.3: Mendel and the Birth of Genetics......Page 471
 Geo-Insight 18.1: Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, Fossils, and Evolution......Page 472
 18.4: The Modern View of Organic Evolution......Page 474
 18.5: Evidence Supporting Evolutionary Theory......Page 480
 Geo-Focus 18.1: Building a Dinochicken......Page 485
Ch 19: Precambrian Earth and Life History......Page 490
 19.1: Introduction......Page 492
 19.2: What Happened During the Hadean?......Page 493
 19.3: The Foundations of Continents-Shields, Platforms, and Cratons......Page 494
 19.4: Archean Earth History......Page 496
 19.5: Proterozoic Earth History......Page 501
 19.6: Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere and Hydrosphere......Page 507
 19.7: Life-Its Origin and Early History......Page 509
 19.8: Resources in Precambrian Rocks......Page 516
Ch 20: Paleozoic Earth History......Page 520
 20.2: Continental Architecture: Cratons and Mobile Belts......Page 522
 20.3: Paleozoic Paleogeography......Page 523
 20.4: Paleozoic Evolution of North America......Page 528
 20.5: The Sauk Sequence......Page 530
 20.6: The Tippecanoe Sequence......Page 531
 20.7: The Kaskaskia Sequence......Page 535
 20.8: The Absaroka Sequence......Page 539
 20.9: History of the Paleozoic Mobile Belts......Page 545
 Geo-Insight 20.1: The Devonian Old Red Sandstone......Page 548
 20.10: What Role Did Microplates and Terranes Play in the Formation of Pangaea?......Page 551
 20.11: Paleozoic Mineral Resources......Page 552
Ch 21: Paleozoic Life History......Page 558
 21.2: What Was the Cambrian Explosion?......Page 560
 21.3: The Emergence of a Shelly Fauna......Page 561
 21.4: The Present Marine Ecosystem......Page 562
 21.5: Paleozoic Invertebrate Marine Life......Page 563
 Geo-Insght 21.1: Trilobites-Paleozoic Arthropods......Page 566
 21.6: Vertebrate Evolution......Page 573
 21.7: Fish......Page 574
 21.8: Amphibians-Vertebrates Invade the Land......Page 579
 21.9: Evolution of the Reptiles-The Land is Conquered......Page 581
 21.10: Plant Evolution......Page 585
Ch 22: Mesozoic Earth and Life History......Page 594
 22.2: The Breakup of Pangaea......Page 596
 22.3: Mesozoic History of North America......Page 600
 22.4: What Role Did Accretion of Terranes Play in the Growth of Western North America?......Page 609
 22.6: Life of the Mesozoic Era......Page 610
 Geo-Insight 22.1: Dinosaurs......Page 616
 22.7: Mesozoic Climates and Paleogeography......Page 624
 Geo-Focus 22.2: Mary Anning\'s Contributions to Paleontology......Page 625
 22.8: Mass Extinctions-A Crisis in the History of Life......Page 626
Ch 23: Cenozoic Earth and Life History......Page 632
 23.3: Cenozoic Orogenic Belts......Page 634
 23.4: Paleogene and Neogene Evolution of North America......Page 636
 Geo-Insight 23.1: The Columbia River Basalts......Page 640
 Geo-focus 23.1: Geology Along the Oregon Trail in Nebraska......Page 645
 23.5: The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs......Page 648
 23.6: Cenozoic Mineral Resources......Page 651
 23.7: Paleogene and Neogene Life History......Page 652
 23.8: Pleistocene Faunas......Page 659
Ch 24: Geology in Perspective......Page 674
 24.2: Geology and the Environment......Page 676
 24.3: A Final Word......Page 681
 A: English-Metric Conversion Chart......Page 682
 B: Topographic Maps......Page 683
 C: Mineral Identification......Page 687
Answers......Page 689
Glossary......Page 695
Index......Page 711