Sunscreens: Regulations and Commercial Development, Third Edition (Cosmetic Science and Technology Series)

Cover......Page 1
Preface......Page 8
Acknowledgment......Page 10
About the Editor......Page 12
Contributors......Page 14
Contents......Page 18
Introduction......Page 24
1 Sunscreen Evolution......Page 26
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND......Page 27
SKIN CANCER AND THE SOLAR SPECTRUM......Page 28
Regulatory and Safety Issues......Page 29
Cosmetic Formulation Issues......Page 32
UV Filters......Page 35
Natural Ingredients......Page 36
Cosmetic Formulations......Page 37
CONCLUSIONS......Page 38
REFERENCES......Page 39
2 Photoprotection......Page 42
THE SOLAR SPECTRUM......Page 43
ACUTE SOLAR DAMAGE Introduction......Page 44
Histology of Acute Photodamage......Page 45
Mechanism of Chronic Damage......Page 46
OTHER EFFECTS OF PHOTOEXPOSURE Photosensitive Reaction......Page 47
Phototoxicity......Page 49
Chronic Actinic Dermatitis (290– 360 nm)......Page 50
Miscellaneous Dermatoses......Page 52
CARCINOGENESIS RELATED TO PHOTOEXPOSURE Mechanism of Carcinogenesis......Page 53
Opportunities to Interrupt the Pathway......Page 54
IMMUNOPATHOLOGY OF SKIN CANCER—AN APPARENT PARADOX......Page 56
Sun Protective Clothing......Page 57
Sunscreens......Page 59
Inorganic Sunscreening Agents......Page 60
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FUTURE......Page 61
REFERENCES......Page 62
OBSERVABLE CUTANEOUS EFFECTS OF SUN EXPOSURE......Page 68
Skin Cancer......Page 69
SUNSCREEN USE AND THE SUN PROTECTION FACTOR......Page 70
HOW LARGE SHOULD THE SPF BE TO PREVENT SUNBURN?......Page 71
HOW HIGH SHOULD THE SPF BE TO GIVE A WORTHWHILE REDUCTION IN LIFETIME RISK OF SKIN CANCER?......Page 72
IS DAILY USE OF SUNSCREENS OF BENEFIT?......Page 73
A STRATEGY FOR SUNSCREEN USE......Page 74
REFERENCES......Page 75
REQUIREMENTS FOR SAFETY TESTING OF SUNSCREENS......Page 78
PARAMETERS AFFECTING SUNSCREEN SAFETY......Page 79
SAFETY PROGRAMS REQUIRED FOR SUNSCREEN PRODUCTS......Page 80
SAFETY TESTING MODELS FOR SUNSCREEN PRODUCTS......Page 81
CONCLUSION......Page 90
REFERENCES......Page 91
5 Sunprotection: Historical Perspective......Page 94
THE SUN AND HUMANS IN THE PAST......Page 95
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL EFFECTS OF SOLAR RADIATION......Page 97
UV-B, THE BAD GUY......Page 98
WHY ANTI-UV-A SUNSCREENS?......Page 99
ANTI-UV-B AND ANTI-UV-A SUNSCREENS......Page 100
BEYOND SPF......Page 101
THE FUTURE: NEW STRATEGIES FOR DEFENSE......Page 102
REFERENCES......Page 103
Regulatory Aspects......Page 106
6 The Role of FDA in Sunscreen Regulation......Page 108
DIFFERENTIATING DRUG, COSMETIC, AND DRUG–COSMETIC PRODUCTS......Page 109
New Drug Application......Page 110
DESCRIPTION OF THE OTC DRUG MONOGRAPH SYSTEM......Page 112
Advisory Panel Review......Page 113
Description of an OTC Drug Monograph......Page 114
Time and Extent Application......Page 116
7 The Final Monograph......Page 118
HISTORY AND SCOPE OF THE REGULATION......Page 119
Permitted Active Sunscreen Ingredients......Page 124
Active Ingredient Combinations......Page 125
Ingredients for Combination Sunscreen–Skin Protectant Products......Page 126
LABELING REQUIREMENTS......Page 127
On the Principal Display Panel......Page 128
In the Drug Facts Panel......Page 129
LABELING CAVEATS......Page 131
Warnings for Tanning Products without Sunscreens......Page 132
Freckles and Uneven Skin Tone......Page 133
WHAT OF THE FUTURE?......Page 134
CONCLUSION......Page 137
DEFINITION OF ULTRAVIOLET FILTERS......Page 140
THE EEC DIRECTIVE PUBLISHED NOVEMBER 28, 1983......Page 141
SUN PROTECTION MEASUREMENTS......Page 147
FUTURE......Page 148
9 Regulation of Sunscreens in Australia......Page 150
INTRODUCTION......Page 151
THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK......Page 152
TEST METHODS......Page 154
New Excipients (Nonactive Ingredients)......Page 155
New Sunscreen Actives......Page 156
PERMITTED SUNSCREENS ACTIVES AND THEIR MAXIMUM ALLOWED DOSAGES......Page 158
LICENSING OF PREMISES......Page 159
Optional Requirements for Primary Sunscreens......Page 160
ADVERTISING OF SUNSCREENS......Page 161
THE COSMETIC/THERAPEUTIC INTERFACE......Page 162
CONCLUSIONS......Page 163
10 Legal and Regulatory Status of Sunscreen Products in Japan......Page 164
INTRODUCTION......Page 165
JAPANESE SKIN CHARACTERISTICS AND ATTITUDE TO UV......Page 166
THE SUNSCREEN CHARACTERISTICS DESIRED BY JAPANESE......Page 170
THE REGULATION OF SUNSCREEN PRODUCTS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF UV-PROTECTIVE AGENTS......Page 171
DEVELOPMENT OF EFFECTIVENESS, LABELING, AND TESTING OF SUNSCREEN PRODUCTS IN JAPAN SPF Testing Methods in Japan......Page 177
Measurement Standards for UV-A Protection Efficacy in Japan......Page 180
Development of Sunscreen Labeling for UV Protection Efficacy in Japan......Page 187
PROBLEMS FOR THE FUTURE......Page 190
REFERENCES......Page 192
11 Regulations of Sunscreens Worldwide......Page 196
OVERVIEW OF REGULATIONS AND PERMITTED UV FILTERS......Page 197
Japan......Page 198
APPROVAL PROCESS FOR NEW ACTIVE INGREDIENTS USA......Page 199
Japan......Page 204
Australia......Page 205
REFERENCE STANDARDS USA......Page 206
European Union......Page 211
European Union......Page 213
Japan......Page 214
Australia......Page 215
THE LABELING OF SUNSCREENS......Page 216
USA......Page 217
Australia......Page 219
MANUFACTURE OF SUNSCREENS......Page 220
12 Sunscreen Products: The Role of the US Pharmacopeia......Page 222
INTRODUCTION......Page 223
United States Pharmacopeia and National Formulary......Page 224
Standards-Setting Body......Page 226
Monograph Development and Revision Process......Page 227
APPENDIX......Page 233
REFERENCES......Page 235
Ultraviolet Filters......Page 238
13 The Chemistry of Ultraviolet Filters......Page 240
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM......Page 241
EFFECT OF UV RADIATION ON THE SKIN......Page 243
CLASSIFICATION OF UV FILTERS......Page 244
PABA and p-Aminobenzoates......Page 247
Salicylates......Page 249
Cinnamates......Page 250
Benzophenones......Page 251
Anthranilates......Page 252
Camphor Derivatives......Page 253
MECHANISM OF SUNSCREENING ACTION......Page 254
Effect of Vehicle on the Efficacy of UV Filters......Page 255
THE FUTURE OF UV FILTERS......Page 258
CONCLUSIONS......Page 260
REFERENCES......Page 261
14 Inorganic Ultraviolet Filters......Page 262
EVOLUTION AND PERSPECTIVES Evolution of Inorganic Ultraviolet Filters......Page 263
Perspectives for Inorganic UV Filters......Page 264
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM DIOXIDE AND ZINC OXIDE General Properties......Page 265
Photocatalytic Activity......Page 267
Optical Behaviors......Page 269
MANUFACTURERS OF INORGANIC ULTRAVIOLET FILTERS......Page 271
Production of Micronized Titanium Dioxide......Page 272
Production and Manufacturers of Micronized Zinc Oxide......Page 273
SURFACE TREATMENT Background......Page 275
Surface Properties of Micronized Pigments......Page 276
Inorganic/Organic Surface Treatments......Page 277
Selecting the Proper Surface Treatment......Page 278
Particle Size......Page 279
Influence of Particle Size on UV Attenuation......Page 280
Characterization of TiO2 and ZnO Dispersions......Page 284
DISPERSION OF INORGANIC ULTRAVIOLET FILTERS Objectives of the Dispersion Process......Page 287
Index of Agglomeration......Page 288
Producers of Dispersions......Page 289
FORMULATIONS Guidelines......Page 290
Determining Suitable Levels of Actives......Page 292
Formulating with Zinc Oxide......Page 293
Obtaining Broad-Spectrum Protection......Page 294
Sample Formulations......Page 295
REGULATIONS, CLAIMS, TOXICITY, AND TESTING......Page 298
REFERENCES......Page 299
15 Inorganic Particulate Ultraviolet Filters in Commerce......Page 304
INORGANIC PARTICULATES: BACKGROUND......Page 305
FORMULATING WITH ZINC OXIDE AND TITANIUM DIOXIDE......Page 306
INORGANIC PARTICULATE SUPPLIERS IN THE USA......Page 307
Children/Baby Product......Page 309
Daily Wear Long-Term Protective Products......Page 310
Recreational Products......Page 311
CONCLUSIONS......Page 312
REFERENCES......Page 313
16 New Sunscreen Actives......Page 314
Trends in the Sunscreen Market......Page 315
Objectives—Requirements......Page 316
NEW TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF UV ABSORBERS FOR SUNSCREENS......Page 318
New Product Forms......Page 319
Synthesis of New Molecules......Page 323
OVERVIEW OF NEW SUNSCREEN ACTIVES The Most Important Properties of UV Absorbers for Sunscreens......Page 325
Discussion of the New UV Filters for Sunscreens......Page 326
IMPROVED UV-A PROTECTION WITH NEW UV-A AND BROAD-SPECTRUM UV ABSORBERS......Page 335
SAFETY OF THE NEW UV ABSORBERS......Page 338
REFERENCES......Page 340
17 The Photostability of Organic Sunscreen Actives: A Review......Page 344
INTRODUCTION......Page 345
PHOTOCHEMISTRY REVIEW Background......Page 346
Photochemical Reactions......Page 347
Energy Transfer......Page 348
Solvent Polarity and Electron Transfer Theory......Page 350
PHOTOSTABILITY OF INDIVIDUAL SUNSCREEN ACTIVE INGREDIENTS......Page 351
Avobenzone (Butyl Methoxydibenzoylmethane)......Page 352
Octinoxate (Octyl Methoxycinnamate)......Page 357
Other UV Filters......Page 358
UV Filter Combinations......Page 361
PHOTOSTABILITY OF SUNSCREEN FORMULATIONS......Page 362
PHOTOSTABILIZATION STRATEGIES Formulation Strategies......Page 364
Molecular Strategies......Page 367
CONCLUSIONS......Page 368
REFERENCES......Page 369
Cosmetic Formulations......Page 374
18 Formulating Sunscreen Products......Page 376
INTRODUCTION......Page 377
FORMULA TYPES Emulsions......Page 379
Oils......Page 381
Gels......Page 382
Mousses......Page 384
Principles of Emulsification......Page 385
Selecting Key Ingredients......Page 388
ACHIEVING FORMULA GOALS To Achieve High SPFs......Page 396
To Obtain Mild Formulations......Page 397
Stability Evaluation......Page 398
FORMULATIONS......Page 399
REFERENCES......Page 405
19 SPF Modulation: Optimizing the Efficacy of Sunscreens......Page 408
INTRODUCTION......Page 409
FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS......Page 410
Rheology......Page 411
FORMULATING WITH ORGANIC SUNSCREENS......Page 414
Oil-Soluble Organic UV Filters......Page 415
FORMULATING WITH INORGANIC SUNSCREENS Basic Principles......Page 417
Formulating with Water-Dispersed TiO2......Page 424
Formulating with Oil-Dispersed TiO2......Page 426
COMBINING SUNSCREENS......Page 427
Combining Organic Sunscreens......Page 428
SPF MODULATION BY EXTERNAL FACTORS: WATER RESISTANCE......Page 429
Fundamental Requirements for Water Resistance......Page 430
Strategies for Water Resistance......Page 431
SUMMARY......Page 432
REFERENCES......Page 433
20 The Role of Surfactants in Sunscreen Formulations......Page 436
THE ROLE OF EMULSIFIERS IN GENERAL......Page 437
FILM FORMATION......Page 438
O/W SUNSCREEN FORMULATIONS......Page 445
QUICK-BREAKING O/W SUNSCREEN EMULSIONS......Page 456
SPRAYABLE O/W EMULSIONS......Page 460
W/O EMULSIONS......Page 463
AUTOXIDATION OF EMULSIFIERS......Page 469
REFERENCES......Page 471
21 Role of Emollients and Emulsifiers in Sunscreen Formulations......Page 472
Solvent Properties......Page 473
Pigment-Dispersing Properties......Page 474
Increased UV Absorption......Page 476
Spreading Properties......Page 477
WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF EMULSIFIERS IN SUNSCREEN EMULSIONS?......Page 478
O/W Emulsifiers......Page 479
TECHNOLOGY FOR NEW SUNSCREEN APPLICATIONS: PHASE INVERSION TEMPERATURE EMULSIONS......Page 480
CONCLUSIONS......Page 482
REFERENCES......Page 483
22 Surfactant-Free Sun Care......Page 484
BACKGROUND Issues with the Current Sunscreen Products......Page 485
Issues with Emulsions......Page 488
USE OF SURFACTANT-FREE DISPERSIONS IN SUN CARE......Page 491
Properties of Lamellar Phase Dispersions......Page 492
La Dispersions of Ultraviolet Absorbers......Page 497
FORMULATING WITH DISPERSIONS Defining a Semiquantitiative Aesthetic Scale......Page 498
Preparing the Final Formulation......Page 502
THE ADVANTAGES OF SURFACTANT-FREE SUNSCREENS......Page 503
BEYOND CONVENTIONAL SUNSCREENS......Page 508
REFERENCES......Page 511
APPENDIX 1 Sunscreen Formulations......Page 512
23 Fragrancing of Sun Care Products......Page 516
SUNTAN LOTIONS, CREAMS, AND SPRAYS......Page 518
FRAGRANCING SUNSCREENS......Page 524
STABILITY OF FRAGRANCES IN SUNSCREEN PRODUCTS......Page 525
COLOR STABILITY: ENSULAZOLE (INCI NAME PHENYLBENZIMIDAZOLE SULFONIC ACID) Reactive Acid and Amine Groups......Page 526
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS......Page 527
Fragrance Appropriateness......Page 528
REFERENCES......Page 529
24 Formulating Natural Sun Care Products......Page 530
FORMULATION FOCUS......Page 531
UV ABSORBING INGREDIENTS......Page 532
INCREASING SPF......Page 534
NATURAL FRAGRANCES......Page 535
Natural Standards......Page 536
Environmental Concern and Aromatherapy......Page 537
Natural Aromas as they Relate to Sun Care Products......Page 538
PRESERVATIVES......Page 539
Biological Effects Due to Sun Exposure......Page 541
CONCLUSIONS......Page 542
REFERENCES......Page 543
Consumer Products with Ultraviolet Filters......Page 546
INTRODUCTION......Page 548
MARKET SHARE AND TRENDS......Page 549
CONSUMER BENEFITS AND PERFORMANCE NEEDS......Page 550
USAGE AND PERFORMANCE NEEDS DURING UV EXPOSURE......Page 551
WATER/SWEAT RESISTANCE......Page 552
SUNBATHING/SUNTANNING PRODUCTS......Page 554
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS Patents......Page 555
REFERENCES......Page 556
INTRODUCTION......Page 558
ENGINEERING......Page 559
MARKETING......Page 560
HISTORY......Page 561
CURRENT MARKET......Page 562
REFERENCES......Page 563
27 Valuable Properties for Baby and Kids Segments......Page 564
INTRODUCTION......Page 565
REVIEW OF BABY SEGMENT......Page 566
REVIEW OF KIDS SEGMENT......Page 567
Titanium Dioxide......Page 568
Avobenzone......Page 569
Selection of Sunscreens/Carrier System......Page 570
Sunscreen Optimization......Page 571
Barrier Function Protection......Page 572
KIDS PRODUCT SPECIFIC STRATEGIES......Page 574
Emulsions......Page 575
Alcohol Sprays......Page 576
Hypoallergenicity......Page 577
REFERENCES......Page 578
28 Fabrics as UV Radiation Filters......Page 580
FIBER DISTRIBUTION......Page 581
Fiber Class Differences......Page 582
Differences Within Natural Fiber Class......Page 583
Differences Within Manufactured Fiber Class......Page 584
Comparison of Dyed Fabrics......Page 585
Optical Whitening (Brightening) Agents......Page 587
UV-Cutting Agents......Page 589
CONCLUSION......Page 593
REFERENCES......Page 594
29 Sunless Tanning and Tanning Accelerators......Page 596
TANNING PRODUCTS: SUNLESS TANNING V. TANNING ACCELERATORS, A MARKET REVIEW......Page 597
BIOLOGICAL TANNING The UV Radiation Response......Page 599
Melanogenesis......Page 601
Regulatory Considerations......Page 602
Enhancing Biological Tanning......Page 603
ARTIFICIAL TANNING......Page 604
Regulatory Considerations......Page 605
Dihydroxyacetone......Page 606
Formulation......Page 609
Tanning Accelerators (1)......Page 611
Sunless Tanners (1)......Page 614
CONCLUSION......Page 617
REFERENCES......Page 618
Other Actives in the Sun Care Industry......Page 624
30 Role of Antioxidants in Sun Care Products......Page 626
INTRODUCTION......Page 627
Iron and Copper......Page 628
Matrix-Degrading Metalloprotease......Page 630
Antioxidant Defense Enzymes......Page 632
Low Molecular Weight Antioxidants......Page 633
PHOTOPROTECTION OF HUMAN SKIN USING ANTIOXIDANTS AND OTHER PHOTOPROTECTANTS......Page 634
Vitamin E and Its Derivatives......Page 635
Vitamin C and Its Derivatives......Page 637
Carotenoids......Page 638
Plant Polyphenolics......Page 640
Combination of Antioxidants......Page 643
Unconventional Photoprotectants......Page 644
CONCLUSIONS......Page 647
REFERENCES......Page 652
31 Photoprotection by Green Tea Polyphenols......Page 662
INTRODUCTION......Page 663
GREEN TEA POLYPHENOLS AND PHOTOPROTECTION......Page 664
PHOTOPROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF GREEN TEA POLYPHENOLS IN SKIN CANCER......Page 665
GREEN TEA POLYPHENOLS AND THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF PHOTOCARCINOGENESIS......Page 666
PHOTOPROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF GREEN TEA POLYPHENOLS ON THE ACUTE UV-INDUCED SUNBURN RESPONSE......Page 667
PHOTOPROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF GREEN TEA POLYPHENOLS ON PHOTOAGING......Page 668
PROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF GREEN TEA POLYPHENOLS IN UV-INDUCED IMMUNOSUPPRESSION......Page 669
Cellular Effects......Page 670
Molecular Effects......Page 671
Biochemical Activities......Page 672
CONCLUSIONS......Page 673
REFERENCES......Page 674
INTRODUCTION......Page 680
BOTANICALS OF SPECIFIC INTEREST Botanically Derived Sunscreens and SPF Boosters......Page 682
Botanicals as Photochemoprotective Agents......Page 683
QUALITY CONTROL: METHODS OF ANALYSIS......Page 684
Recent Research Techniques: Biological Assays and Cell Culture......Page 688
Biological Assays of Interest for Screening Botanicals in Sun Care Products......Page 689
REFERENCES......Page 692
INTRODUCTION......Page 696
STRATEGIES OF ANTIAGING ACTIVES IN SUNSCREENS Prevention of Damage (“Slowing Down the Aging Process”)......Page 700
Treatment of UV-Induced Age Symptoms......Page 707
REFERENCES......Page 712
Production and Quality Control......Page 720
34 The Manufacture of Suncare Products......Page 722
Oil-in-Water Emulsions......Page 723
Spray Emulsions......Page 726
Hydroalcoholic Products......Page 728
Cooling......Page 730
PRODUCTION METHODS......Page 731
RAW MATERIAL HANDLING......Page 732
QUALITY CONTROL OF SUNSCREENS......Page 733
Stability Testing......Page 735
Analysis by Nonscanning UV Analysis......Page 736
CONTRACT MANUFACTURING OF SUNCARE PRODUCTS......Page 739
REFERENCES......Page 741
INTRODUCTION......Page 742
SAMPLING......Page 744
PHYSICAL METHODS......Page 745
CHEMICAL METHODS......Page 748
SPECTROSCOPY......Page 749
CHROMATOGRAPHY......Page 750
VALIDATION......Page 751
MICROBIOLOGY......Page 752
SUMMARY......Page 753
REFERENCES......Page 754
36 Quality Control of Ultraviolet Filters......Page 758
FDA APPROVED CATEGORY I UV FILTERS......Page 759
Physical Analyses......Page 760
Chemical Analyses......Page 762
Chromatographic Techniques......Page 763
Spectroscopic Techniques......Page 765
REFERENCES......Page 771
37 Modern Analytical Techniques in the Sunscreen Industry......Page 774
INTRODUCTION......Page 775
Physicochemical Methods......Page 776
Chromatographic Methods......Page 777
Chemical Methods......Page 778
Spectroscopic Methods......Page 779
NEW ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES......Page 781
GC and GC/MS Ancillary Methods......Page 783
Other Methods......Page 786
CONCLUSIONS......Page 787
REFERENCES......Page 788
Analytical Testing Procedures......Page 790
38 US FDA Protocol for Determining Sun Protection Factor......Page 792
Standard Sunscreen......Page 793
Testing Procedure......Page 794
US VS. THE INTERNATIONAL SPF TESTING METHOD......Page 798
REFERENCES......Page 801
INTRODUCTION......Page 802
THE INTERNATIONAL SPF TEST METHOD......Page 805
The UV Light Source......Page 807
Volunteer Selection......Page 813
Product Application Procedure......Page 814
Use of Standard Products......Page 815
UV Exposure Procedure......Page 816
Minimum Erythemal Dose Definition and Determination......Page 817
SPF Calculation and Statistical Acceptance/Rejection Criteria......Page 818
SPF LABELING GUIDELINES......Page 821
WATER RESISTANCE TESTING AND UV-A MEASUREMENT......Page 826
REFERENCES......Page 828
40 Balancing UV-A and UV-B Protection in Sunscreen Products: Proportionality, Quantitative Measurement of Efficacy, and Clear Communication to Consumers......Page 830
INTRODUCTION......Page 831
BACKGROUND ON THE REQUIREMENTS FOR UV-A/UV-B PROPORTIONALITY......Page 832
Protection Minimums for Proportional UV-A/UV-B Protection......Page 834
Identification and Communication of Two Distinct Levels of UV-A Protection......Page 836
THE NEED TO MEASURE BOTH BREADTH AND QUANTITY OF PROTECTION......Page 838
TESTING FORMULATIONS TO EVALUATE THE REPRODUCIBILITY OF THE PFA AND PERSISTENT PIGMENT DARKENING UV-A TEST METHODS, WITH ADDITIONAL ASSESSMENT OF BROADNESS......Page 839
RESULTS......Page 840
DISCUSSION......Page 841
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 846
REFERENCES......Page 847
41 Dosimetry of Ultraviolet Radiation: An Update......Page 850
NATURE OF ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION......Page 851
Radiometric Calculations......Page 852
DETECTION OF UV RADIATION......Page 853
SPECTRORADIOMETRY......Page 854
Components of a Spectroradiometer......Page 855
Commercial Spectroradiometers......Page 856
Angular Response......Page 857
RADIOMETER STABILITY......Page 858
Biological Dosimeters......Page 859
Fluorescent Lamps......Page 860
REFERENCES......Page 863
INTRODUCTION......Page 866
Measurement Procedures......Page 868
RESULTS......Page 869
DISCUSSION......Page 871
CONCLUSION......Page 873
REFERENCES......Page 874
43 Development......Page 876
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IN VITRO MEASUREMENTS OF SUNSCREEN PROTECTION......Page 877
EXPERIENCE WITH IN VITRO MEASUREMENTS OF SUNSCREEN PROTECTION Early In Vitro Measurements of Sunscreen SPF......Page 879
The O’Neill Step Film Model......Page 881
Substrates for In Vitro Measurements of Sunscreen Protection......Page 883
Critical Wavelength......Page 884
Simultaneous In Vitro Measurement of SPF and Photostability......Page 885
UV-A Index......Page 888
Ring Test of In Vitro SPF, PPDPF, and UV-A Index Measurements......Page 889
European Ring Test of In Vitro SPF Measurements......Page 892
Product Application and Substrate Considerations......Page 896
UV Source......Page 898
Photostability......Page 899
REFERENCES......Page 900
44 Prediction of Sun Protection Factors and UV-A Parameters by Calculation of UV Transmissions Through Sunscreen Films of Inhomogenous Surface Structure......Page 904
INTRODUCTION......Page 905
MATERIALS AND METHODS UV Filters and Formulations......Page 906
Measurement of UV Spectra......Page 907
INTRODUCTION OF STEP FILM INHOMOGENEITY BY MATHEMATICAL MODELS Calculation of Average UV Spectra from the Spectra of Individual UV Filters......Page 908
The Step Film Model by O’Neill......Page 909
Using a Distribution Function for Introduction of Film Inhomogeneity......Page 912
CORRELATION OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CALCULATED DATA Calculated SPF and SPF In Vivo......Page 914
Correlation of Calculated UV-A Parameters and UV-A Parameters Measured In Vitro......Page 918
REFERENCES......Page 922
Marketing and Information......Page 924
INTRODUCTION......Page 926
Sunlight Exposure Dosimetery......Page 927
Statistical Methods......Page 930
RESULTS......Page 932
DISCUSSION......Page 933
REFERENCES......Page 934
46 The Role of Publications in the Industry......Page 936
TRADE PUBLICATIONS......Page 937
ELECTRONIC INFORMATION......Page 938
APPENDIX—INDUSTRY PUBLICATIONS Trade Publications......Page 939
Consumer Press......Page 940
Regulatory Resources......Page 941
47 Technical Information in the Expanding Sunscreen Field......Page 942
INTRODUCTION......Page 943
The European UV Sunfilters Conference and Exhibition......Page 944
EDUCATIONAL COURSES......Page 945
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS......Page 946
INTERNET WEBSITES......Page 948
REFERENCES......Page 950
INTRODUCTION......Page 952
Daily Wear and Long-Term Protective Products......Page 954
Tanning Products......Page 957
Recreational Products......Page 958
New Regulations......Page 960
Advances in Technology......Page 961
REFERENCES......Page 963
Index......Page 964