Stream Hydrology: An Introduction for Ecologists

Stream Hydrology......Page 1
Contents......Page 8
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 14
Preface to the First Edition......Page 16
1.2 The Physics of Fluids......Page 18
1.3.1 Density and Related Measures......Page 20
1.3.3 Surface Tension......Page 22
1.3.4 Thermal Properties......Page 24
1.3.5 Entrained Air and Dissolved Oxygen......Page 25
2.1 Focusing on Physical Habitat......Page 28
2.2.1 General......Page 33
2.2.3 Choosing Your Method: The Study Design......Page 34
2.2.5 Analysing and Presenting the Results......Page 35
2.3.1 Population, Sample and Other Vocabulary of the Trade......Page 36
2.3.2 The Errors of Our Ways......Page 37
2.3.3 Considerations in Choosing a Sampling Design......Page 38
2.3.4 Partitioning the Stream......Page 39
2.3.5 Basic Sampling Designs......Page 40
2.4 Know Your Limitations......Page 44
2.5 Examples of How to and How Not to Conduct a Study (by M. Keough)......Page 45
3.2.1 Where to Look for Data and What You Are Likely to Find......Page 48
3.2.2 Data Quality......Page 50
3.2.3 How to Fill in a Streamflow Record......Page 53
3.3.1 What Types of Maps Are Useful?......Page 54
3.3.2 Map Interpretation......Page 58
3.4.1 What Is Remote Sensing?......Page 60
3.4.2 Photographs......Page 61
3.4.3 Other Remote Sensing Imagery......Page 62
3.4.4 Sources of Imagery......Page 63
3.4.5 Interpretation, Classification and ‘Ground Truthing’ of Imagery......Page 64
4.1.2 Putting the Stream Channel and Its Catchment into Context......Page 66
4.1.3 Initial Assessments of the State of a Stream......Page 67
4.1.4 An Example of a River Condition Survey: The Index of Stream Condition, Victoria, Australia......Page 71
4.2.2 Delimiting and Measuring the Catchment Area......Page 73
4.2.3 Stream Length......Page 75
4.2.4 Stream Patterns......Page 76
4.2.5 Stream Orders......Page 78
4.2.6 Miscellaneous Morphometric Measures......Page 80
4.3.1 Definitions......Page 82
4.3.2 Hydrograph Separation......Page 83
4.3.3 Factors Influencing the Hydrograph Shape......Page 84
4.4.1 General......Page 85
4.4.2 Annual Statistics......Page 86
4.4.5 A Method for Describing Hydrological Predictability: Colwell’s Indices......Page 88
5.1 Venturing into the Field......Page 92
5.2.2 Horizontal Distance......Page 93
5.2.3 Vertical Distance......Page 94
5.2.4 Slope......Page 95
5.2.5 The Full Contingent of Co-ordinates, Including Methods of Mapping......Page 96
5.3.3 Point Intercept Method......Page 101
5.3.4 Line Intercept Method......Page 102
5.4.2 Cross-sectional Profiles......Page 104
5.4.3 Channel Slope and Thalweg Profile......Page 105
5.4.5 Mapping the Stream Reach......Page 106
5.5.4 Automatic Recorders......Page 107
5.5.5 Depth to the Water Table: Piezometry......Page 108
5.6.2 Volumetric Measurement......Page 109
5.6.3 Velocity-area Method......Page 110
5.6.4 Dilution Gauging Methods......Page 113
5.6.5 Stream Gauging......Page 115
5.6.6 Slope-area Method of Estimating Discharge......Page 118
5.7.1 General......Page 121
5.7.3 Bed Material Sampling......Page 122
5.7.4 Sampling Suspended Sediments......Page 123
5.7.5 Sampling Bedload Sediments......Page 127
5.7.6 Erosion and Scour......Page 130
5.8.3 Sediment Concentration......Page 131
5.8.4 Particle Size......Page 132
5.8.5 Presentation of Particle Size Data......Page 136
5.8.6 Particle Shape: Roundness, Sphericity......Page 138
5.8.7 Particle Arrangement and Other Miscellaneous Bulk Properties......Page 139
5.9 Water Quality......Page 142
6.2.1 Pressure......Page 144
6.2.2 Buoyancy......Page 146
6.3.2 Streamlines......Page 147
6.3.4 Energy Relationships and the Bernoulli Equation......Page 148
6.4.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow......Page 149
6.4.2 Flow Past Solid Surfaces: The Boundary Layer......Page 153
6.5.2 Describing the Velocity Profile and Boundary Layer Thickness near a Solid Surface......Page 158
6.5.3 Shear Stress and Drag Forces......Page 160
6.5.4 Flow around Bluff Bodies......Page 163
6.5.5 Lift......Page 169
6.5.6 Methods of Microvelocity Measurement......Page 170
6.6.2 Introduction to Hydraulics......Page 172
6.6.3 The Variations of Velocity in Natural Channels......Page 173
6.6.4 Energy Relationships in Streams......Page 176
6.6.5 Shear Stress and the Uniform Flow Equations of Chezy and Manning......Page 180
6.6.6 Water-surface Profiles in Gradually Varied Flow......Page 182
6.6.7 Hydraulic Jumps and Drops, Alias Rapidly Varied Flow......Page 184
7.1.2 Making Up a Channel Bed......Page 186
7.1.3 What Sort of Debris Is Transported?......Page 187
7.1.4 Sediment Distribution and Discharge......Page 189
7.1.5 Ecological Implications......Page 190
7.2.1 A Note about Stream Power......Page 191
7.2.2 Adjustments and Equilibrium......Page 193
7.2.3 Balancing Slope, Streamflow, and Sediment Size and Load......Page 194
7.2.4 Floods and Floodplain Formation......Page 195
7.2.5 Channel-forming Discharges......Page 196
7.2.6 Fluvial Geometry......Page 197
7.3.1 Channel Patterns......Page 199
7.3.2 Pools, Riffles and Steps......Page 202
7.3.3 Bars......Page 203
7.3.4 Dunes, Ripples and Flat Beds of Sand......Page 204
7.4.1 Erosion, Transport and Deposition......Page 206
7.4.2 Deviations from ‘Ideal’......Page 207
7.4.3 Predicting a Particle’s ‘Get Up and Go’......Page 208
7.5.1 Sediment Sources and Sinks......Page 212
7.5.2 Sediment Yield Variations......Page 214
7.5.3 Computing Sediment Discharge and Yield from Measured Concentrations......Page 215
7.5.4 The Estimation of Sediment Discharge from Streamflow......Page 216
8.1.2 Floods and Droughts......Page 218
8.1.4 Putting Statistics into a Proper Perspective......Page 220
8.2.2 Probability and Average Recurrence Intervals......Page 221
8.2.3 The Data Series......Page 222
8.2.4 Graphical Methods: The Probability Plot......Page 224
8.2.5 Fitting Probability Distributions......Page 225
8.2.6 A Few Good Probability Distributions......Page 227
8.2.7 Zeros and How to Treat Them......Page 229
8.2.9 Interpreting Frequency Curves......Page 231
8.3.1 General......Page 232
8.3.2 Constructing Flow-duration Curves......Page 233
8.3.3 Interpretation and Indices......Page 234
8.4 Flow-spell Analysis......Page 235
8.5.1 General......Page 236
8.5.2 Transposing Data from Gauging Stations to Less-endowed Sites......Page 237
8.5.3 Regionalization......Page 238
8.6.1 General......Page 241
8.6.3 Ordination......Page 242
8.6.4 Classification......Page 245
8.6.5 Other Sources of Information on Numerical Taxonomy......Page 248
9.1 Putting Theories into Practice......Page 250
9.2.2 Ecological Potential......Page 254
9.2.3 The Role of Science in the Stream Health Policy Debate......Page 255
9.3.1 Introduction......Page 256
9.3.2 Describing Reach Condition......Page 257
9.3.3 Physico-chemical Assessment......Page 258
9.3.4 Habitat Assessment......Page 259
9.3.5 Hydrological Assessment......Page 264
9.3.6 Bioassessment......Page 266
9.3.8 Selecting a Method for Measuring Stream Health......Page 278
9.4.1 Introduction......Page 279
9.4.2 Ecological Classification Models Based on Energetics, Structure, Function and Dynamics of Rivers......Page 280
9.4.3 Geomorphological Classification Models Based on River Process and Structure......Page 284
9.4.4 Hydrologically Based Classification......Page 290
9.4.5 Water Quality-based Classification......Page 292
9.4.6 Combined Physical-chemical-ecological Classification Models......Page 293
9.4.7 Ecoregions and Multi-scale Classification......Page 294
9.4.8 Wetland Classification......Page 295
9.4.9 Estuary Classification......Page 298
9.4.10 Classification of Conservation Value of Rivers......Page 299
9.4.11 Designated Use Classification......Page 300
9.5.1 Introduction......Page 303
9.5.2 Instream and Environmental Flows Defined......Page 304
9.5.3 Three Basic Assumptions of Environmental Flows Assessment......Page 305
9.5.4 Forms of Environmental Flow Assessment......Page 307
9.5.5 Hydrological Methods......Page 308
9.5.6 Hydraulic Rating Methods......Page 310
9.5.7 Habitat Rating Methods......Page 312
9.5.8 Holistic Methods......Page 316
9.5.9 Other Approaches......Page 319
9.5.10 Implementation and Evaluation of Environmental Flows......Page 329
9.5.11 Summary......Page 335
9.6.1 The Basis of Stream Rehabilitation......Page 336
9.6.2 Addressing Biotic Factors......Page 343
9.6.3 Correction of Physical Limiting Factors......Page 347
9.6.4 Rehabilitation of Channel Form......Page 350
9.6.5 Instream Habitat Improvement Structures......Page 362
9.6.6 Evaluation of a Range of Stream Rehabilitation Projects......Page 366
9.6.7 Some Reflections on Stream Rehabilitation......Page 374
Appendix Basic Statistics......Page 376
References......Page 388
Index......Page 440