Statistics For Lawyers: Statistics For Social And Behavioral Science

Preface to the Fourth Edition
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgments
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
1: Descriptive Statistics
	1.1 Introduction to descriptive statistics
	1.2 Measures of central location
		1.2.1 Parking meter heist
		1.2.2 Taxing railroad property
		1.2.3 Capital infusions for ailing thrifts
		1.2.4 Disproportionate-share hospitals
		1.2.5 Hydroelectric fish kill
		1.2.6 Pricey lettuce
		1.2.7 Apportionment of Representatives among the states
		1.2.8 Super-drowsy drug
	1.3 Measures of dispersion
		1.3.1 Texas reapportionment
		1.3.2 Damages for pain and suffering
		1.3.3 Ancient trial of the Pyx
		1.3.4 Bush v. Gore: The U.S. Supreme Court´s election 2000 decision
	1.4 A measure of correlation
		1.4.1 Dangerous eggs
		1.4.2 Public school finance in Texas
	1.5 Measuring the disparity between two proportions
		1.5.1 Proficiency test with a disparate impact
		1.5.2 Bail and bench warrants
		1.5.3 Non-intoxicating beer
		1.5.4 SIDS tragedies
2: How to Count
	2.1 Permutations and combinations
		2.1.1 DNA profiling
		2.1.2 Weighted voting
		2.1.3 Was the bidding rigged?
		2.1.4 A cluster of leukemia
		2.1.5 Measuring market concentration
	2.2 Fluctuation theory
		2.2.1 Tracing funds for constructive trusts
3: Elements of Probability
	3.1 Some fundamentals of probability calculation
		3.1.1 Interracial couple in yellow car
		3.1.2 Independence assumption in DNA profiles
		3.1.3 Telltale fibers
		3.1.4 Telltale hairs
		3.1.5 Randomized response technique
	3.2 Selection effect
		3.2.1 L´affaire Dreyfus
		3.2.2 Searching DNA databases
		3.2.3 Trawling in DNA Databases
	3.3 Bayes´s theorem
		3.3.1 Rogue bus
		3.3.2 Bayesian proof of paternity
	3.4 Screening devices and diagnostic tests
		3.4.1 Airport screening device
		3.4.2 Polygraph evidence
	3.5 Monte Carlo methods
		3.5.1 Sentencing a heroin swallower
		3.5.2 Cheating on multiple-choice tests
	3.6 Foundations of probability
		3.6.1 Relevant evidence defined
4: Some Probability Distributions
	4.1 Introduction to probability distributions
	4.2 Binomial distribution
		4.2.1 Discrimination in jury selection
		4.2.2 Educational nominating panel
		4.2.3 Small and nonunanimous juries in criminal cases
		4.2.4 Cross-section requirement for federal jury lists
		4.2.5 Cat litter imbroglio
	4.3 Normal distribution and a central limit theorem
		4.3.1 Alexander: Culling the jury list
		4.3.2 Castaneda: Measuring disparities
	4.4 Testing statistical hypotheses
		4.4.1 Hiring teachers
	4.5 Hypergeometric distribution
		4.5.1 Were the accountants negligent?
		4.5.2 Challenged election
		4.5.3 Election 2000: Who won Florida?
		4.5.4 Taking the stand
		4.5.5 Lipitor and diabetes
	4.6 Tests of normality
		4.6.1 Heights of French conscripts
		4.6.2 Silver ``butterfly´´ straddles
	4.7 Poisson distribution
		4.7.1 Sulphur in the air
		4.7.2 Vaccinations
		4.7.3 Is the cult dangerous?
		4.7.4 Incentive for good drivers
		4.7.5 Epidemic of cardiac arrests
	4.8 Geometric and exponential distributions
		4.8.1 Marine transportation of liquefied natural gas
		4.8.2 Network affiliation contracts
		4.8.3 Dr. Branion´s case
	4.9 Gamma distribution
5: Statistical Inference for Two Proportions
	5.1 Fisher´s exact test of equality for two proportions
		5.1.1 Nursing examination
	5.2 The chi-squared and z-score tests for the equality of two proportions
		5.2.1 Suspected specialists
		5.2.2 Reallocating commodity trades
		5.2.3 Police examination
		5.2.4 Promotions at a bank
	5.3 Confidence intervals for proportions
		5.3.1 Confounders and confidence intervals
		5.3.2 Paucity of Crossets
		5.3.3 Purloined notices
		5.3.4 Commodity exchange reports
		5.3.5 Discharge for dishonest acts
		5.3.6 Confidence interval for promotion test data
		5.3.7 Complications in vascular surgery
		5.3.8 Torture, disappearance, and summary execution in the Philippines
	5.4 Statistical power in hypothesis testing
		5.4.1 Death penalty for rape
		5.4.2 Is Bendectin a teratogen?
		5.4.3 Automobile emissions and the Clean Air Act
	5.5 Legal and statistical significance
		5.5.1 Port Authority promotions
		5.5.2 State trooper literacy exam
	5.6 Maximum likelihood estimation
		5.6.1 Purloined notices revisited
		5.6.2 Do microwaves cause cancer?
		5.6.3 Peremptory challenges of prospective jurors
6: Comparing Multiple Proportions
	6.1 Using chi-squared to test goodness of fit
		6.1.1 Death-qualified jurors
		6.1.2 Spock jurors
		6.1.3 Grand jury selection revisited
		6.1.4 Howland Will contest
		6.1.5 Imanishi-Kari´s case
		6.1.6 Harvard´s affirmative action practices in admissions
	6.2 Bonferroni´s inequality and multiple comparisons
		6.2.1 Wage additives and the four-fifths rule
		6.2.2 Discretionary parole
		6.2.3 Cheating on standardized multiple-choice tests revisited
		6.2.4 InterMune´s Actimmune
	6.3 More measures of association: Phi-squared (훟2) and tauB (τB)
		6.3.1 Preventive detention
7: Comparing Means
	7.1 Student´s t-test: Hypothesis testing and confidence intervals
		7.1.1 Automobile emissions and the Clean Air Act revisited
		7.1.2 Voir dire of prospective trial jurors
		7.1.3 Ballot position
		7.1.4 Backdating stock options
		7.1.5 Bullet lead identification
	7.2 Analysis of variance for comparing several means
		7.2.1 Fiddling debt collector
		7.2.2 New York City Garbage Trucks
8: Combining Evidence Across Independent Strata
	8.1 Mantel-Haenszel and Fisher methods for combining the evidence
		8.1.1 Hiring lawyers
		8.1.2 Age discrimination in employment terminations
		8.1.3 Rheumatoid arthritis drug
		8.1.4 Disparate Impact of a Pre-employment Exam on Minority Applicants
	8.2 Meta-analysis
		8.2.1 Bendectin revisited
		8.2.2 Avandia and heart attacks
		8.2.3 Liraglutide and Pancreatic Cancer
9: Sampling Issues
	9.1 The theory of random sampling
		9.1.1 Selective Service draft lotteries
		9.1.2 Uninsured motor vehicles
		9.1.3 Mail order survey
		9.1.4 Domino effect
		9.1.5 NatraTaste versus NutraSweet
		9.1.6 Cocaine by the bag
		9.1.7 ASCAP sampling plan
		9.1.8 Current Population Survey
		9.1.9 Insurance payments to doctors
		9.1.10 Wage and hour class action
		9.1.11 Reversals in Death Penalty Cases
		9.1.12 New York City Garbage Trucks Revisited
	9.2 Capture/recapture
		9.2.1 Adjusting the census
		9.2.2 Technology-Assisted Review in e-Discovery
10: Epidemiology
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Attributable risk
		10.2.1 Atomic weapons tests
	10.3 Epidemiologic principles of causation
		10.3.1 Dalkon Shield
		10.3.2 Radioactive ``cocktails´´ for pregnant women
		10.3.3 Preconception paternal irradiation and leukemia
		10.3.4 Swine flu vaccine and Guillain-Barré Syndrome
		10.3.5 Silicone breast implants
		10.3.6 Asbestos and Colon Cancer
11: Survival Analysis
	11.1 Death-density, survival, and hazard functions
		11.1.1 Valuing charitable remainders
		11.1.2 Defective house sidings
		11.1.3 ``Lifing´´ deposit accounts
		11.1.4 Exonerations in death-sentence cases
		11.1.5 Reversals in Death-Penalty Cases Revisited
	11.2 The proportional hazards model
		11.2.1 Age discrimination in employment terminations revisited
		11.2.2 Contaminated wells in Woburn
	11.3 Quantitative risk assessment
		11.3.1 Ureaformaldehyde foam insulation
		11.3.2 Ethylene oxide
12: Nonparametric Methods
	12.1 The sign test
		12.1.1 Supervisory examinations
	12.2 Wilcoxon signed-rank test
		12.2.1 Voir dire of prospective trial jurors revisited
	12.3 Wilcoxon rank-sum test
		12.3.1 Sex discrimination in time to promotion
		12.3.2 Selection for employment from a list
		12.3.3 Sentencing by federal judges
	12.4 Spearman´s rank correlation coefficient
		12.4.1 Draft lottery revisited
13: Regression Models
	13.1 Introduction to multiple regression models
		13.1.1 Head Start programs
	13.2 Estimating and interpreting coefficients of the regression equation
		13.2.1 Western Union´s cost of equity
		13.2.2 Tariffs for North Slope oil
		13.2.3 Ecological regression in vote-dilution cases
		13.2.4 Projecting airline costs
		13.2.5 Guilty Pleas in the Federal Courts and the IRNC
	13.3 Measures of indeterminacy for the regression equation
		13.3.1 Sex discrimination in academia
	13.4 Statistical significance of the regression coefficients
		13.4.1 Race discrimination at Muscle Shoals
	13.5 Explanatory factors for a regression equation
	13.6 Reading multiple-regression computer printout
		13.6.1 Pay discrimination in an agricultural extension service
		13.6.2 Public school financing in the State of Washington
		13.6.3 Public school financing in Pennsylvania
	13.7 Confidence and prediction intervals
		13.7.1 Projecting fuel costs
		13.7.2 Severance pay dispute
		13.7.3 Challenged absentee ballots
		13.7.4 Projecting airline costs revisited
	13.8 Assumptions of the regression model
	13.9 Transformations of variables
		13.9.1 Western Union´s cost of equity revisited
		13.9.2 Sex- and race-coefficient models for Republic National Bank
14: More Complex Regression Models
	14.1 Time series
		14.1.1 Corrugated container price-fixing
		14.1.2 Puppy Chow versus Chewy Morsels
		14.1.3 Losses from infringing sales
		14.1.4 OTC market manipulation
		14.1.5 Fraud-on-the-market damages
		14.1.6 Effects of capital gains tax reductions
		14.1.7 Projecting airline costs re-revisited
		14.1.8 The ``Financing Secured´´ Event Study
	14.2 Interactive models
		14.2.1 House values in the shadow of a uranium plant
	14.3 Alternative models in employment discrimination cases
	14.4 Locally weighted regression
		14.4.1 Urn models for Harris Bank
	14.5 Underadjustment bias in employment regressions
		14.5.1 Underadjustment in medical school
	14.6 Systems of equations
		14.6.1 Death penalty: Does it deter murder?
		14.6.2 Neurontin off-label marketing
	14.7 Logit and probit regression
		14.7.1 Mortgage lending discrimination
		14.7.2 Death penalty in Georgia
		14.7.3 Deterring teenage smoking
	14.8 Poisson regression
		14.8.1 Challenger disaster
	14.9 Negative binomial regression
		14.9.1 New York City police stops
	14.10 Jackknife, cross-validation, and bootstrap
		14.10.1 Georgia death penalty revisited
	14.11 Average marginal effects
Appendix I: Calculations and Comments on the Cases
	Chapter 1. Descriptive Statistics
		Section 1.2.1. Parking meter heist
		Section 1.2.2. Taxing railroad property
		Section 1.2.4. Disproportionate-share hospitals
		Section 1.2.5. Hydroelectric fish kill
		Section 1.2.6. Pricey lettuce
		Section 1.2.7. Apportionment of Representatives among the states
		Section 1.2.8. Super-drowsy drug
		Section 1.3.1. Texas reapportionment
		Section 1.3.2. Damages for pain and suffering
		Section 1.3.3. Ancient trial of the Pyx
		Section 1.4.1. Dangerous eggs
		Section 1.4.2. Public school financing in Texas
		Section 1.5.1. Proficiency test with a disparate impact
		Section 1.5.2. Bail and bench warrants
		Section 1.5.3. Non-intoxicating beer
		Section 1.5.4. SIDS tragedies
	Chapter 2. How to Count
		Section 2.1.1. DNA profiling
		Section 2.1.2. Weighted voting
		Section 2.1.3. Was the bidding rigged?
		Section 2.1.4. A cluster of leukemia
		Section 2.1.5. Measuring market concentration
		Section 2.2.1. Tracing funds for constructive trusts
	Chapter 3. Elements of Probability
		Section 3.1.1. Interracial couple in yellow car
		Section 3.1.2. Independence assumption in DNA profiles
		Section 3.1.4. Telltale hairs
		Section 3.1.5. Randomized Response Technique
		Section 3.2.1. L´affaire Dreyfus
		Section 3.2.2. Searching DNA databases
		Section 3.2.3. Trawling in DNA Databases
		Section 3.3.1. Rogue bus
		Section 3.3.2. Bayesian proof of paternity
		Section 3.4.1. Airport screening device
		Section 3.4.2. Polygraph evidence
		Section 3.5.2. Cheating on multiple-choice tests
	Chapter 4. Some Probability Distributions
		Section 4.2.1. Discrimination in jury selection
		Section 4.2.3. Small and nonunanimous juries in criminal cases
		Section 4.2.4. Cross-section requirement for federal jury lists
		Section 4.2.5. Cat litter imbroglio
		Section 4.3.1. Alexander: Culling the jury list
		Section 4.4.1. Hiring teachers
		Section 4.5.1. Were the accountants negligent?
		Section 4.5.2. Challenged election
		Section 4.5.3. Election 2000: Who won Florida?
		Section 4.5.4. Taking the stand
		Section 4.5.5. Lipitor and diabetes
		Section 4.6.1. Heights of French conscripts
		Section 4.6.2. Silver ``butterfly´´ straddles
		Section 4.7.1. Sulphur in the air
		Section 4.7.2. Vaccinations
		Section 4.7.3. Is the cult dangerous?
		Section 4.7.4. Incentive for good drivers
		Section 4.7.5. Epidemic of cardiac arrests
		Section 4.8.1. Marine transportation of liquefied natural gas
		Section 4.8.2. Network affiliation contracts
		Section 4.8.3. Dr. Branion´s case
	Chapter 5. Statistical Inference for Two Proportions
		Section 5.1.1. Nursing examination
		Section 5.2.1. Suspected specialists
		Section 5.2.2. Reallocating commodity trades
		Section 5.2.3. Police examination
		Section 5.2.4. Promotions at a bank
		Section 5.3.2. Paucity of Crossets
		Section 5.3.3. Purloined notices
		Section 5.3.4. Commodity exchange reports
		Section 5.3.5. Discharge for dishonest acts
		Section 5.3.6. Confidence interval for promotion test data
		Section 5.3.7. Complications in vascular surgery
		Section 5.3.8. Torture, disappearance, and summary execution in the Philippines
		Section 5.4.1. Death penalty for rape
		Section 5.4.2. Is Bendectin a teratogen?
		Section 5.4.3. Automobile emissions and the Clean Air Act
		Section 5.5.1. Port Authority promotions
		Section 5.6.1. Purloined notices revisited
		Section 5.6.2. Do microwaves cause cancer?
		Section 5.6.3. Peremptory challenges of prospective jurors
	Chapter 6. Comparing Multiple Proportions
		Section 6.1.1. Death-qualified jurors
		Section 6.1.2. Spock jurors
		Section 6.1.3. Grand jury selection revisited
		Section 6.1.4. Howland Will contest
		Section 6.1.5. Imanishi-Kari´s case
		Section 6.1.6. Harvard´s affirmative action practices in admissions
		Section 6.2.1. Wage additives and the four-fifths rule
		Section 6.2.2. Discretionary parole
		Section 6.2.4. InterMune´s Actimmune
		Section 6.3.1. Preventive detention
	Chapter 7. Comparing Means
		Section 7.1.1. Automobile emissions and the Clean Air Act revisited
		Section 7.1.2. Voir dire of prospective trial jurors
		Section 7.1.3. Ballot position
		Section 7.1.4. Backdating Stock Options
		Section 7.2.1. Fiddling debt collector
		Section 7.2.2. New York City garbage trucks
	Chapter 8. Combining Evidence Across Independent Strata
		Section 8.1.1. Hiring lawyers
		Section 8.1.2. Age discrimination in employment terminations
		Section 8.1.3. Rheumatoid arthritis drug
		Section 8.1.4. Disparate impact of a pre-employment exam on minority applicants
		Section 8.2.1. Bendectin revisited
		Section 8.2.2. Avandia and heart attacks
		Section 8.2.3. Liraglutide and pancreatic cancer
	Chapter 9. Sampling Issues
		Section 9.1.1. Selective Service draft lotteries
		Section 9.1.2. Uninsured motor vehicles
		Section 9.1.3. Mail order survey
		Section 9.1.5. NatraTaste v. NutraSweet
		Section 9.1.6. Cocaine by the bag
		Section 9.1.7. ASCAP sampling plan
		Section 9.1.8. Current population survey
		Section 9.1.9. Insurance payments to doctors
		Section 9.2.1. Adjusting the Census
		Section 9.2.2. Technology-assisted review in e-discovery
	Chapter 10. Epidemiology
		Section 10.2.1. Atomic weapons tests
		Section 10.3.1. Dalkon Shield
		Section 10.3.2. Radioactive ``cocktails´´ for pregnant women
		Section 10.3.3. Preconception paternal irradiation and leukemia
		Section 10.3.4. Swine flu vaccine and Guillain-Barré Syndrome
		Section 10.3.5. Silicone breast implants
	Chapter 11. Survival Analysis
		Section 11.1.2. Defective house sidings
		Section 11.1.3. ``Lifing´´ deposit accounts
		Section 11.1.4. Exonerations in Death-Sentence Cases
		Section 11.2.1. Age discrimination in employment terminations revisited
		Section 11.2.2. Contaminated wells in Woburn
		Section 11.3.2. Ethylene oxide
	Chapter 12. Nonparametric Methods
		Section 12.1.1. Supervisory examinations
		Section 12.2.1. Voir dire of prospective trial jurors revisited
		Section 12.3.1. Sex discrimination in time to promotion
		Section 12.3.2. Selection for employment from a list
		Section 12.3.3. Sentencing by federal judges
		Section 12.4.1. Draft lottery revisited
	Chapter 13. Regression Models
		Section 13.1.1. Head Start programs
		Section 13.2.1. Western Union´s cost of equity
		Section 13.2.2. Tariffs for North Slope oil
		Section 13.2.3. Ecological regression in vote-dilution cases
		Section 13.2.4. Projecting airline costs
		Section 13.2.5. Guilty Pleas in the Federal Courts and the IRNC
		Section 13.3.1. Sex discrimination in academia
		Section 13.4.1. Race discrimination at Muscle Shoals
		Section 13.6.1. Pay discrimination in an agricultural extension service
		Section 13.6.2. Public school financing in the State of Washington
		Section 13.7.1. Projecting fuel costs
		Section 13.7.2. Severance pay dispute
		Section 13.7.3. Challenged absentee ballots
		Section 13.7.4. Projecting airline costs revisited
		Section 13.9.1. Western Union´s cost of equity revisited
		Section 13.9.2. Sex- and race-coefficient models for Republic National Bank
	Chapter 14. More Complex Regression Models
		Section 14.1.1. Corrugated container price-fixing
		Section 14.1.3. Losses from infringing sales
		Section 14.1.4. OTC market manipulation
		Section 14.1.5. Fraud-on-the-market damages
		Section 14.1.6. Effects of capital gains tax reductions
		Section 14.1.7. Projecting airline costs re-revisited
		Section 14.1.8. The ``financing secured´´ event study
		Section 14.2.1. House values in the shadow of a uranium plant
		Section 14.4.1. Urn models for Harris Bank
		Section 14.5.1. Underadjustment in medical school
		Section 14.6.1. Death penalty: does it deter murder?
		Section 14.6.2. Neurontin off-label marketing
		Section 14.7.2. Death penalty in Georgia
		Section 14.7.3. Deterring teenage smoking
		Section 14.8.1. Challenger disaster
		Section 14.9.1. NYC Street Stops
		Section 14.10.1. Georgia death penalty revisited
Appendix II: Tables
	Table A1: The Cumulative Normal Distribution
	Table A2: Critical Values of the Standard Normal Distribution
	Table B: Cumulative Terms of the Binomial Distribution
	Table C: Percentage Points of the Chi-squared Distribution
	Table D: Critical Values of the Durbin-Watson Statistic
	Table E: Percentage Points of the t Distribution
	Table F: Percentage Points of the F Distribution
	Table F: Percentage Points of the F Distribution
	Table G1: Critical Values of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov One-Sample Test
	Table G2: Critical Values of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Two-Sample Test
	Table H1: Critical Values of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
	Table H2: Critical Values of the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test
Glossary of Symbols
List of Cases
Bibliography
	Elementary and Intermediate Statistical Texts
	Advanced Statistical Texts
	Bayesian Methods
	Biostatistics and Epidemiology
	Econometrics and Time Series
	Encyclopedias
	Exploratory Data Analysis
	Foundations and Statistical Theory
	Historical Studies
	Legal and Public Policy
	Multiple Regression
	Multivariate Statistics
	Nonparametric Methods
	Online resources
	Probability
	Sampling
	Tables
	Other Specialized Texts
Index