Spacecraft that Explored the Inner Planets Venus and Mercury

Introduction
Contents
Chapter 1: The Planets of the Sun
	Characteristics of Venus
	Characteristics of Mercury
	Bibliography
Chapter 2: Launch Vehicles for Planetary Spacecraft
	Early Soviet Union Space Programs
	Soviet Union Launch Site for Early Planetary Spacecraft
	Soviet Union Launch Vehicles for Early Planetary Spacecraft
		Soyuz-Molniya 8 K78 Lunch Vehicle
		Molniya 8K78M Launch Vehicle
		Proton-K Launch Vehicle
	Early United States Space Programs
	United States Launch Sites for Early Planetary Spacecraft
	United States Launch Vehicles for Planetary Spacecraft
		Atlas-Agena Launch Vehicles
		Atlas-Centaur Launch Vehicles
		Titan III/Centaur Launch Vehicles
		Space Shuttle Launch Vehicle
		Delta II Launch Vehicle
		Falcon 9 Launch Vehicle
	Japanese Launch Vehicle for Akatsuki Spacecraft to Venus
		Tanegashima Space Center
	European Space Agency (ESA) Launch Vehicle Soyuz-Fregat
		Soyuz-FG Launch Vehicle
		Fregat Upper Stage
	Bibliography
Chapter 3: Soviet Union Spacecraft That Explored Venus 1960–1980
	1VA Spacecraft (Sputnik 7 and Venera 1)
		Flight of the 1VA Spacecraft
	2MV Spacecraft
		2MV-1 Spacecraft
		2MV Bus
		2MV-1 Landing Capsule
		2MV-2 Spacecraft
			Flights of the 2MV-1 and 2MV-2 Spacecraft
	3MV Spacecraft (Venera 2 and Venera 3)
		Background of 3MV Spacecraft
			3MV-1 Spacecraft
			3MV Bus
			Landing Capsule
		Repurposed Spacecraft Originally Planned for Mars
		Flights of the 3MV Spacecraft to Venus
	V-67 Spacecraft (Venera 4)
		Design of V-67 Spacecraft
		Landing Capsule
		Flights of the V-67 Spacecraft
			Venera 4
			Kosmos 167
	V-69 Spacecraft (Venera 5 and Venera 6)
		Design of V-69 Spacecraft
		Flight of the V-69 Spacecraft
			Venera 5
			Venera 6
	V-70 Spacecraft (Venera 7)
		Flight of the V-70 Spacecraft Venera 7
			Kosmos 359
	V-72 Spacecraft (Venera 8)
		Bus
		Landing Capsule
			Flight of V-72 Spacecraft Venera 8
	4V-1 Spacecraft (Venera 9 and Venera 10)
		Bus Obiter
			Experiments on the Bus
		4V-1 Lander
			Lander Experiments
		Flight of 4V-1 Spacecraft Venera 9 and Venera 10
			Venera 9
			Venera 10
		Experiments Conducted by the Landers
		Operation of the Orbiter
	4V-1 Spacecraft, Venera 11 and Venera 12
		Flights of 4V-1 Spacecraft Venera 11 and Venera 12
			Venera 11
			Venera 12
		Lander Operations
			Color Cameras
			Mass Spectrometer
			Gas Chromatograph (Sigma)
			X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer
			Low Frequency Radio Sensor (GROZA)
			Penetrometer (PROP-V)
		Bus
			SIGNE 2 Gamma-ray Burst Detector
			KONUS Gamma-ray Burst Detector
	Bibliography
Chapter 4: U.S. Spacecraft that Explored Venus 1960–1980
	Mariner R Spacecraft (Mariner 1 and Mariner 2)
		Mechanical Configuration
		Mariner R Systems
			Spacecraft Power
			Central Computer and Sequencer
			Attitude Control System
			Midcourse Correction Rocket Engine
			Telecommunications Subsystem
		Experiments Carried by Mariner 2
			Microwave Radiometer
			Configuration of Microwave Radiometer
			Infrared Radiometer
			Magnetometer
			High Energy Radiation Experiment
			Solar Plasma Analyzer
			Cosmic Dust Sensor
		Flight of Mariner 1 and Mariner 2 Spacecraft
			Flight of Mariner 1
			Flight of Mariner 2
	Mariner 5 Spacecraft
		Background of Mariner 5
		Mechanical Configuration of Mariner 5
		Mariner 5 Systems
			Midcourse Correction Rocket Engine
			Spacecraft Power
			Guidance and Control
			Special Sensors
			Telecommunications Subsystem
			Command Detector and Decoder
			Data Encoder
			Data Automation Subsystem
			Tape Recorder Subsystem
		Science Experiments Carried by Mariner 5
			Trapped Radiation Detector
			Solar Plasma Probe
			Helium Magnetometer
			Ultraviolet Photometer
			Dual–Frequency Receiver
		Flight of Mariner 5
	Pioneer Venus Orbiter
		Background of Pioneer Venus Mission
		Mechanical Configuration of Pioneer Venus Orbiter
		Pioneer Venus Orbiter Systems
			Orbit Insertion Rocket Motor
			Spacecraft Power
			Telecommunications
			Attitude and Maneuvering Control
		Science Experiments Carried by Pioneer Venus Orbiter
			Magnetometer Experiment
			Surface Mapping Radar
			Orbiter Infrared Radiometer
			Ultraviolet Spectrometer
			Cloud Photopolarimeter
			Gamma Ray Burst Detector
	Pioneer Venus Multiprobe
		Mechanical Configuration of Pioneer Venus Multiprobe
		Multiprobe Bus Systems
			Power Subsystem
			Communications
			Attitude and Maneuvering Control
		Science Experiments Carried by Multiprobe Bus
			Neutral Mass Spectrometer
			Ion Mass Spectrometer
	Pioneer Venus Large Probe
		Mechanical Configuration of Large Probe
			Descent of the Large Probe
		Large Probe Systems
			Power Subsystem
			Communications Subsystem
			Command Subsystem
			Data Transmission to Earth
		Science Experiments Carried by Large Probe
			Neutral Mass Spectrometer
			Gas Chromatograph
			Solar Flux Radiometer
			Infrared Radiometer
			Cloud Particle Size Spectrometer (LCPS)
			Nephelometer (LN/SN)
			Atmosphere Structure Experiments (LAS/SAS)
	Pioneer Venus Small Probes
		Mechanical Configuration of Small Probes
			Descent of the Small Probes
		Small Probe Systems
			Power Subsystem
			Communications Subsystem
			Command Subsystem
			Data Transmission to Earth
		Science Experiments Carried by the Small Probe
			Net Flux Radiometer
	Bibliography
Chapter 5: Soviet Union Spacecraft that Explored Venus 1980–1990
	4 V-1 Spacecraft (Venera 13 and Venera 14)
		Flight of Venera 13 and Venera 14
		Scientific Experiments on Venera 13 and 14 Landers
			Color Cameras
			Mass Spectrometer
			Gas Chromatograph (Sigma 2)
			X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer Analysis of Clouds
			X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer Analysis of Soil and Rocks
			Optical Spectrometer
			Penetrometer (PROP-V)
			Low Frequency Radio Sensor (GROZA 2)
		Landing Sites for the Venera Spacecraft
	4 V-2 Spacecraft (Venera 15 and Venera 16)
		Mechanical Configuration of Venera 15 and 16
		Flight of Venera 15 and Venera 16
		Scientific Experiments on Venera 15 and 16
			Synthetic Aperture Radar
			Radar Altimeter
			Infrared Spectrometer
			Cosmic Ray Detector
	5VK Spacecraft (Vega 1 and Vega 2)
		Mechanical Configuration of Vega 1 and Vega 2
		Flight of the Vegas
			Flight of Vega 1
			Flight of Vega 2
		Experiments on Vega Bus for Exploration of Comet Halley
			Television System (TVS)
			Infrared Spectrometer (IKS)
			Three Channel Spectrometer (TKS)
		Balloon Borne Exploration of Venus
			Experiments on the Balloon
			Data Transmission from Experiments
			Determination of Venus Winds by Earth-Based Tracking of Balloons
		Vega Lander
		Experiments on Vega Landers
			Ultraviolet Absorption Spectrometer (ISAV-S)
			Optical Aerosol Analyzer (ISAV-A)
			Aerosol Particle-Size Counter (LSA)
			Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (MALAKHIT-M)
			Hygrometer (VM-4)
			X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (IFP)
			Gas Chromatograph (SIGMA-3)
			Gamma Ray Spectrometer
			Soil X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (BDRP-AM25)
			Temperature and Pressure Sensors (METRO)
	Conclusion
	Bibliography
Chapter 6: U.S. Magellan Spacecraft that Explored Venus 1980–2020
	Background of Magellan Program
	Mechanical Configuration of the Magellan Spacecraft
	Magellan Systems
		Propulsion System
		Attitude Control System
		Command and Data Subsystem
		Telecommunications
		Spacecraft Power
		Radar Sensor
	Flight of Magellan
	Mapping Mission
		Synthetic Aperture Radar Mapping
		Radar Altimeter Mapping
		Radiometric Mapping
		Gravimetric Mapping
	Conclusion
	Bibliography
Chapter 7: U.S. Spacecraft that Explored Mercury: Mariner 10 and Messenger
	Mariner 10 Spacecraft
		Background of Mariner 10
		Mechanical Configuration of Mariner 10
		Mariner 10 Systems
			Trajectory Correction Rocket Motor
			Attitude Control Subsystem
			Articulation and Pointing Subsystem
			Spacecraft Power
			Central Computer and Sequencer
			Flight Data Subsystem
			Telecommunications System
			Command Decoder
		Science Experiments Carried by Mariner 10
			Television Cameras
			Infrared Radiometer
			Ultraviolet Airglow Spectrometer
			Ultraviolet Occultation Spectrometer
			Magnetometer
			Plasma Science Experiment
			Charged Particles Telescope
			S-Band and X-Band Radio Occultation
		Flight of Mariner 10
		Conclusion
	Messenger Spacecraft
		Background of Messenger Program
		Mechanical Configuration of the Messenger Spacecraft
		Messenger Systems
			Propulsion System
			Electrical Power Subsystem
			Attitude Control
			Guidance and Control
			Telecommunications
			Command and Data Handling
		Flight of Messenger
		Science Experiments Carried by Messenger
			Mercury Dual Imaging System (MDIS)
			Images from Messenger Mission
			Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer (MASCS)
			Gamma-Ray and Neutron Spectrometer (GRNS)
			X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS)
			Magnetometer (MAG)
			Energetic Particle and Plasma Spectrometer (EPPS)
			Mercury Laser Altimeter (MLA)
		Conclusion
		Mission Patch for the Messenger Program
	Bibliography
Chapter 8: Japanese and European Space Agency Spacecraft that Explored Venus 2005–2020
	Venus Express Spacecraft
		Mechanical Configuration of Venus Express
		Venus Express Systems
			Propulsion System
			Attitude Control
		Electrical Power for Venus Express
		Telecommunications System
		Data Management System
		Flight of Venus Express
		Scientific Instruments
			Venus Monitoring Camera
			Analyser of Space Plasma and Energetic Atoms (ASPERA-4)
			Magnetometer (MAG)
			Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS)
			Spectroscopy for Investigation of Characteristics of the Atmosphere of Venus/Solar Occultation at Infrared (SPICA/SOIR)
			Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS)
	Akatsuki Spacecraft (Japan)
		Mechanical Configuration of Akatsuki
		Akatsuki Systems
			Propulsion System
			Attitude Control
			Electrical Power
			Telecommunications System
		Flight of Akatsuki
	Science Instruments
		Ultraviolet Imager (UVI)
		1 μm Camera (IR1)
		2 μm Camera (IR2)
		Long-Wave Infrared Camera (LIR)
		Digital Electronics Unit
		Lightning and Airglow Camera (LAC)
		Radio Occultation Experiment
	Bibliography
Index