Solar Thermal Energy

Series Preface
Volume Preface
Contents
About the Editor-in-Chief
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Introduction
Solar Thermal Energy: Introduction
	Glossary
	Section Content Overview
	Bibliography
Solar Thermal Energy: History
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Renewable Energy Technologies
	History of Solar Energy
		Concentrating System for Power Production
		Solar Drying
		Solar Desalination
			History of Desalination
	Conclusions
	References
Part II: Solar Thermal Concentrated Systems
Estimation of Concentrated Solar Power Potential
	Glossary
	Abbreviations
	Definition of the Subject and its Importance
	Introduction
	Worldwide CSP Potential
	DNI Maps of Different World Regions
	Assessment Criteria for CSP Potential Analysis
		Exclusion Criteria
			DNI
			Slope of the Terrain
			Excluded Land
				Protected Areas
		Limiting Criteria
			Land Use
			Infrastructure (Roads, Power Transmission Lines)
			Geology and Natural Hazards (Earthquake, Storm, Flood, High Wind Load)
			Geomorphology/ Soil Characteristics
			Hydrology/ Water Demand/ Cooling Mode
			Energy Demand
			Impact (Acoustic, Visual)
	Methods and Examples
	Conclusions
	Bibliography
Parabolic Trough Solar Technology
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject and its Importance
	Introduction
	Technology Description
		PTC Mirror
	Absorber (Receiver)
		Performance Properties of Receivers for PTC
		Support Structure
		Tracking and Drive Mechanism
		Foundation and Pylons
		Heat Transfer Fluid
		PTC Performance
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Linear Fresnel Collectors
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
	Introduction
	Design of Linear Fresnel Reflectors
	Reference Area
	Receiver Design
	Benefits and Disadvantages
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
Concentrating Receiver Systems (Solar Power Tower)
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
	Introduction
	Advantages of the Use of CRS for Supply of Energy
	Concentrating Receiver Systems for Power Production
		Heliostat Field
			Heliostat Components
			Heliostat Types
			Heliostat Shapes
				Canted-Glass Mirror Heliostat
				Stretched-Membrane Focused and Nonfocused Heliostat
				Flat-Type Single-Mirror Heliostats
			Heliostat Size
			Heliostat Field Design
			Theoretical Considerations
			Heliostat Aiming Strategies
		Receiver
			Direct Absorption Receiver: Falling Particle or Molten Salt Liquid Film
			Tube Receiver
			Cavity Receiver
			Air Receiver
				Open Volumetric Receiver
				Pressured Volumetric Receiver
		Tower
	Providing Firm and Dispatchable Power
	Characteristics of Different Heat Transfer Fluids
		Molten Salt
		Water/Steam
		Air
		Others
	Increase of Operation Hours of CRS by Storage and Hybridization
		Storage
		Hybridization
	Examples of CRS Plants
		Research Facilities
			Solar One
			Solar Two
			National Solar Thermal Test Facility
			CESA-1
			Themis
			CSIRO
			Solar Research Facility Unit
			Solar Tower Plant Jülich (STJ)
		Commercial
			Sierra SunTower
			PS10
			PS20
			Gemasolar
			Solar Tower Plant Jülich (STJ)
			Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project (Tonopah)
			Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating Station (ISEGS)
			Ashalim Solar Thermal Power Station (Megalim)
			NOOR III
			Khi Solar One
		Under Construction or Under Development
	Secondary Uses of CRS
	Economical Considerations
		Investment Costs
		Operation and Maintenance Costs
		Levelized Electricity Cost
		Future Cost Development
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Solar Dish Systems
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Definition of a Solar Dish
	Origins of Solar Dishes
	The Challenge of Low Cost
	Styles of Solar Dishes
	Evolution of Designs
		Size
		Tracking Style
		Structure
		Mirror Panels
	Power Conversion Units
		Stirling Engines
		Steam Engines
		Steam Generation
		Organic Rankine Cycles
		Air Brayton
		Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV)
		Thermochemical
	Energy Storage
		Dish-Mounted Thermal Storage
		Central Thermal Storage
	Cost Reduction Opportunities
	Future Directions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Solar Updraft Towers
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
	Introduction
	Solar Updraft Tower Technical Concept
		Principle
		Components
			Collector
				Glass Roof
				Designing the Canopy Near the Tower
				Vacuum-Cleaning the Roof
			Storage
			Tower
				Loads on the Tower
			Turbines
			Turbine Layout
				Airflow
				Calculations
				Flow Redirection into the Tower
			Generator
			Safety
		Physical Model
	Prototype
	Transferring the Results to Large-Scale Plants
	Large-Scale Solar Updraft Towers
		General System Advantages
		Electricity Generation Costs
	Future Directions
	References
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Part III: Application of Solar Thermal Concentrated Systems
Parabolic Trough and Solar Tower Power Plants, Measuring Systems, Testing, and Monitoring Methods
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Site Survey with Weather Sensors
		Irradiation Measurement and Sunshine Forecast
		Further Weather Sensors and Measuring Stations for a Site Survey
		Surveying of the Sunshape
	Measurement of the Essential Features of Various Key Components
		Tests in the Mirror Field
			Inspection of the Geometric Quality of the Mirrors
				Deflectometry
				Photogrammetry
				Laser Scan Concept
			Inspection of the Quality of Reflection
			Technique for Measurement of the Orientation of Heliostats
			Use of Camera Drone for Thermal and Optical Surveys
		Examination of the Receiver
			Flux Density Measurement at the Absorber
				Flux Density Measurement: Measuring Methods on Solar Towers and Solar Ovens
				Flux Density Measurement: Measuring Methods on Parabolic Trough Systems and Fresnel Mirror Systems
					Receiver Reflection Method
					ParaScan
			Infrared Light Measurement at the Absorber
	References
Dynamical Behavior of CSP Plants
	Glossary
	Introduction
	Dynamic Behavior: A Classification Related to Time Scales
	Dynamic Behavior of Parabolic Trough Systems
		Solar Field Temperature Control
		Solar Field Start-Up Process
		Coupling of the Solar Field to the Storage and Power Block
	Dynamic Behavior of Solar Tower Systems
		General Considerations
		Model Based Control Methods
		Operation of Molten Salt Receiver Systems
		Problematic Cloud Situations
	Nowcasting Systems
	Calculation of Annual Energy Production
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
Solar Simulators
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Applications
		Space Solar Simulators
		Solar Simulators for PV Cells
		Solar Simulators for CSP
		Further Applications
	Light Sources
		General Requirements
			Airmass Spectra
			Classification of Spectral Matching
			Power Output
		Discharge Lamps
			Carbon Arc Lamp
			Xenon Short-Arc Lamp
			Metal Halide Lamp
			Argon Lamps
		Tungsten Halogen Lamp
		Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
	Simulator Design
		Preliminary Remarks
		Optical Devices
			Reflectors
			Reflective Coating
			Fresnel Lenses
		High-Flux Solar Simulators
			Elliptic Reflector Based Design
			Fresnel Lens Based Design
		Low-Flux Solar Simulators
			Xenon Lamp Based Design
			LED-Based Design
			Halogen-LED Hybrid Solar Simulators
	Flux Measurement and Flux Profiles
		Flux Measurements
		Strategies for Setting Up the Required Flux Profile
	Outlook
	Bibliography
		Further Reading
Porous Materials for Solar Energy Harvesting, Transformation, and Storage
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	The Basic Receiver Principles
	The Basic Receiver/Reactor Principles
	The Basic Principles of Thermochemical Storage Technology
	Physical Requirements of Porous Structures for Use as Receivers
	Porous Structures Applied as Volumetric or Tube Receivers
		Extruded Silicon Carbide Catalyst Carriers (Hitrec)
		Additively Manufactured Metals
		Advanced Cellular Metal Honeycombs
		Engineered Hybrid Tube Receivers
		Metal Wire Meshes
		Ceramic Foams
		SiC Fiber Mesh
		Screen Printed Absorber Samples (Direct Typing Process)
		Material Combinations
		Overview
	Porous Structures Used as Receiver/Reactors
	Porous Structures in Thermochemical Storage Systems
	Absorber Qualification
	Physical Restrictions of Volumetric Receivers
		Experimental Determination of Non-stable Flow
	Conclusions
	Nomenclature
	References
Thermal Energy Storage
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Principles of Sensible Heat Storage
		Solid Storage Materials
		Liquid Storage Materials
			Applications of Water Storages for Solar Energy
			Molten Salt
			Further Liquid Storage Materials
	Principles of Latent Heat Storage
		Cold Storage (0 C and Below)
		Low-Temperature Storage (0-120 C)
			Salt Hydrates
			Paraffins
		Applications for Solar Heating and Cooling
		High-Temperature PCM Storage (Above 120 C)
		Heat Transfer Concepts and Composites
	Principles of Chemical Heat Storage
		Gas-Solid Dissociation Reactions
		Catalytic Reactions
	Thermal Energy Storage for Concentrated Solar Power
		Classification of Thermal Storage Systems
		Thermal Energy Storage Concepts
		Direct Storage of Liquid Working Fluid
		Direct Storage with Phase Change (Steam Accumulators)
		Indirect Storage Concepts
			Indirect Storage in Solid Media
			Indirect Storage in Liquid Media
			Indirect Storage with Phase Change Materials
		Regenerator Storage for Solar Central Receiver Plants
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
Solar Energy in Thermochemical Processing
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
	Introduction
	Thermodynamics of Solar Thermochemical Conversion
	Solar Thermochemical Processes
		Solar Production of Fuels
			Solar Production of Metals
			Solar Production of H2/CO from H2O/CO2 Splitting and/or Fossil Fuels
			Solar Production of H2 from Fossil Fuels
			Solar Production of H2 from H2S
		Solar Production of Material Commodities
			Solar Metals and Metal Oxides, Metallic Carbides, and Nitrides
			Solar Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes
			Solar Lime and Cement
			Solar Thermal Recycling of Hazardous Waste Materials
	Life Cycle and Economic Analysis
	Future Directions
	Note
	Nomenclature
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Part IV: Non-concentrating Solar Thermal Systems and Their Application
Solar Collectors, Non-concentrating
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Functioning of a Solar Collector
	Construction of Solar Thermal Collectors
		Absorber
			Absorber Coating: Photo Thermal Layer
			Absorber Material
			Heat Removal Construction
		Transparent Cover
		Other Collector Housing Elements
		Insulation
		Reflector
	Collector Types
		Noncovered Flat Plate Collectors: WISC
		Covered Liquid-Heating Flat-Plate Collectors
		Evacuated Tube Collectors
		Air-Heating Collectors
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
Solar Cookers and Dryers to Conserve Human and Planet Health
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Solar Driers
		Direct Solar Dryer
		Indirect Solar Drier
		Combined Solar Dryer
	Cooking of Food
	Energy and Temperature Required for Cooking
	History of Solar Cooking
	Different Types of Cookers
		Hot-Box-Type Cookers
		Concentrating-Type Cookers
		Vapor-Type Cookers
		Hybrid Cookers
		Energy Storage Cookers
	Author´s Work: Personal Interest in Solar Cooking
		Food Warmer
		Simple Hot Box Oven
		Concentrating Cooker
			Some Problems
		Hybrid Cookers (Sun - AC Electricity)
		Hybrid Cooker (Sun - Gas)
		Electric Storage Models
			Solar-Electric Microwave Oven
			Portable 12-VDC Cooker
			Solar Multi-voltage Cooker
		Multipurpose Device
		Solar Cooker Cum Water Heater
		Solar Cooker Cum Dryer
		Multipurpose and Hybrid Food Processor (Solar-Electric 110-VAC Cooker/Water, Pasteurizer/Still, and Dryer)
		Two Compartments Oven
	Some Models of Other Authors
		Cook Kit Model
		Hybrid Concentrating Model
	Advantages
		Energy Saving
		Cash Saving
		Human Health
		Social Aspects
		Environmental Aspects
	Other Uses of Solar Cooker
	Number of Solar Cookers Globally
	What Can Be Done to Extend the Use of Solar Cookers
	Conclusions
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Solar Cooling Systems
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
	Introduction
	Physical Principles
		Conversion Chains
		Thermodynamic Analysis of Thermally Driven Chillers
	Common System Designs
		Closed Absorption Systems
		Closed Adsorption Systems
		Open Solid Desiccant Systems
		Open Liquid Desiccant Systems
		Subsystems and Further Equipment Components
	Energy and Cost Performance
		Energy Balance
		Economical Assessment
		Methodology of Economical Assessment - An Exemplary Simulation Study
	System Experiences
		Summary of Experiences
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Solar Detoxification and Disinfection of Water
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
	Introduction
	Solar TiO2 (Heterogeneous) Photocatalysis Applied to Water Decontamination
	Fundamental Parameters Affecting Kinetics in Solar TiO2 (Heterogeneous) Photocatalysis Applied to Water Decontamination
		Mass of Catalyst
		pH
		Temperature
		Radiant Flux
		Concentration of Oxygen
	Solar Photo-Fenton
		Effect of pH
		Effect of Iron Concentration and Iron Source
		Effect of Temperature
	Solar Disinfection and Photocatalytic Disinfection
		Solar Disinfection
		Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection
	Solar Hardware for Water Decontamination and Disinfection
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Part V: Common Closing Subject
Solar Thermal Systems: Life Cycle Assessment
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction to LCA: What Is It, What Does It Consider, Why Is It So Important
		Introduction to the LCA Methodology for Multicriteria Analysis (MCA)
		Considerations in LCA
		History of LCA
		Significance and Limitations of LCA
		LCA Focus
	LCA for CSP
		LCA for Parabolic Trough Collector Systems
		LCA for Solar Tower Systems
	LCA for Solar Thermal Systems at Low Temperature
	LCA Comparison Results to Other Renewable Systems
	Conclusions
	Bibliography
Index