Social Psychology

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Advisory Editorial Board......Page 3
Brief Contents......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 18
About the Authors......Page 22
Acknowledgements......Page 24
Guided Tour......Page 26
1 Introducing social psychology......Page 29
 What is social psychology?......Page 31
  Social psychology and its close neighbours......Page 32
  Topics of social psychology......Page 34
  Scientific method......Page 35
  Experiments......Page 36
  Non-experimental methods......Page 39
  Data and analysis......Page 41
  Physical welfare of participants......Page 45
  Informed consent......Page 46
 Theories and theorising......Page 47
  Theories in social psychology......Page 48
  Reductionism and levels of explanation......Page 51
  Positivism and post-positivism......Page 52
  Social psychology in the nineteenth century......Page 53
  The rise of experimentation......Page 54
  Later influences......Page 56
 Social psychology in Europe......Page 60
 About this text......Page 63
 Summary......Page 65
 Literature, film and TV......Page 66
 Learn more......Page 67
2 Social cognition and social thinking......Page 69
  A short history of cognition in social psychology......Page 71
  What information is important?......Page 73
  Biases in forming impressions......Page 74
  Cognitive algebra......Page 76
 Social schemas and categories......Page 78
  Types of schemas......Page 79
  Categories and prototypes......Page 80
  Categorization and stereotyping......Page 83
  Using schemas......Page 86
  Acquiring schemas......Page 88
  Changing schemas......Page 89
  Salience......Page 90
  Vividness......Page 91
 Memory for people......Page 92
  Contents of person memory......Page 93
  Using person memory......Page 95
  Departures from normality......Page 97
  Heuristics......Page 100
 Affect and emotion......Page 101
  Antecedents of affect......Page 102
  Consequences of affect......Page 103
 Where is the ‘social’ in social cognition?......Page 104
 Summary......Page 105
 Learn more......Page 107
3 Attribution and social explanation......Page 109
 Seeking the causes of behaviour......Page 111
  People as naive psychologists......Page 112
  From acts to dispositions......Page 113
  People as everyday scientists......Page 114
  Explaining our emotions......Page 116
  Task performance attributions......Page 118
  Individual differences and attributional styles......Page 119
  Interpersonal relationships......Page 120
 Attributional biases......Page 121
  Correspondence bias and the fundamental attribution error......Page 122
  The actor–observer effect......Page 124
  The false consensus effect......Page 125
  Self-serving biases......Page 126
 Intergroup attribution......Page 128
  Attribution and stereotyping......Page 131
  Social representations......Page 132
  Rumour and gossip......Page 134
  Societal attributions......Page 135
  Culture’s contribution......Page 137
 Summary......Page 139
 Literature, film and TV......Page 140
 Learn more......Page 141
4 Self and identity......Page 143
 Self and identity in historical context......Page 145
  Collective self......Page 146
  Symbolic interactionist self......Page 147
 Self-awareness......Page 149
  Self-schemas......Page 150
  Regulatory focus theory......Page 152
  Inferences from our behaviour......Page 154
  Social comparison and self-knowledge......Page 155
  Types of self and identity......Page 156
  Contextual sensitivity of self and identity......Page 157
  In search of self-coherence......Page 158
  Processes of social identity salience......Page 159
 Self-motives......Page 161
  Self-enhancement......Page 162
 Self-esteem......Page 164
  Self-esteem and social identity......Page 167
  Individual differences......Page 169
  In pursuit of self-esteem......Page 170
  Strategic self-presentation......Page 172
  Expressive self-presentation......Page 173
 Cultural differences in self and identity......Page 174
 Summary......Page 176
 Literature, film and TV......Page 177
 Learn more......Page 178
5 Attitudes......Page 179
  A short history of attitudes......Page 181
  Attitude structure......Page 182
  Cognitive consistency......Page 183
  Cognition and evaluation......Page 184
  Decision-making and attitudes......Page 186
 Can attitudes predict behaviour?......Page 187
  Beliefs, intentions and behaviour......Page 188
  Attitude accessibility......Page 196
  Attitude strength and direct experience......Page 198
  Moderator variables......Page 199
  Behavioural approaches......Page 202
  Sources of learning......Page 205
  Values......Page 206
  Ideology......Page 207
  Social representations......Page 208
  Using attitude scales today......Page 209
  Physiological measures......Page 211
  Measures of overt behaviour......Page 213
  Measuring covert attitudes......Page 214
  Concluding thoughts......Page 216
 Summary......Page 217
 Literature, film and TV......Page 218
 Learn more......Page 219
6 Persuasion and attitude change......Page 221
 Persuasive communication......Page 223
  The communicator......Page 227
  The message......Page 229
  The audience......Page 235
 Dual-process models of persuasion......Page 237
  Elaboration–likelihood model......Page 238
  Heuristic–systematic model......Page 239
  Tactics for enhancing compliance......Page 241
  Action research......Page 246
 Cognitive dissonance and attitude change......Page 248
  Effort justification......Page 250
  Induced compliance......Page 252
  The role of self......Page 255
  Alternative views to dissonance......Page 257
 Resistance to persuasion......Page 258
  Inoculation......Page 259
  Attitude accessibility and strength......Page 261
 Summary......Page 262
 Literature, film and TV......Page 263
 Learn more......Page 264
7 Social influence......Page 265
  Compliance, obedience, conformity......Page 267
  Power and influence......Page 268
 Obedience to authority......Page 271
  Factors influencing obedience......Page 272
  The ethical legacy of Milgram’s experiments......Page 276
  The formation and influence of norms......Page 277
  Yielding to majority group pressure......Page 278
  Who conforms? Individual and group characteristics......Page 281
  Situational factors in conformity......Page 283
  Processes of conformity......Page 284
 Minority influence and social change......Page 287
  Beyond conformity......Page 288
  Behavioural style and the genetic model......Page 289
  Conversion theory......Page 291
  Convergent–divergent theory......Page 294
  Social identity and self-categorization......Page 295
  Vested interest and the leniency contract......Page 296
  Two processes or one?......Page 297
 Summary......Page 298
 Literature, film and TV......Page 299
 Learn more......Page 300
8 People in groups......Page 301
  Categories and group entitativity......Page 303
  Groups and aggregates......Page 304
  Mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation......Page 305
  Classification of group tasks......Page 312
  Social loafing and social impact......Page 314
 Group cohesiveness......Page 320
 Group socialisation......Page 323
 Norms......Page 327
 Group structure......Page 331
  Roles......Page 332
  Status......Page 333
  Communication networks......Page 335
  Subgroups and crosscutting categories......Page 337
  Deviants and marginal members......Page 338
  Reasons for joining groups......Page 340
  Motivations for affiliation and group formation......Page 341
  Why not join groups?......Page 342
 Summary......Page 343
 Literature, film and TV......Page 344
 Learn more......Page 345
9 Leadership and group decision-making......Page 347
 Leadership......Page 349
  Defining leadership......Page 350
  Personality traits and individual differences......Page 351
  Situational perspectives......Page 353
  What leaders do......Page 354
  Contingency theories......Page 357
  Transactional leadership......Page 360
  Transformational leadership......Page 363
  Charisma and charismatic leadership......Page 364
  Leader perceptions and leadership schemas......Page 365
  Social identity and leadership......Page 366
  Trust and leadership......Page 369
  Gender gaps, glass ceilings and glass cliffs......Page 370
  Intergroup leadership......Page 372
  Rules governing group decisions......Page 374
  Brainstorming......Page 375
  Group memory......Page 378
  Groupthink......Page 381
  Group polarisation......Page 383
 Jury verdicts......Page 386
 Summary......Page 388
 Literature, film and TV......Page 390
 Learn more......Page 391
10 Prejudice and discrimination......Page 393
 Nature and dimensions of prejudice......Page 395
 Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviour......Page 396
  Sexism......Page 398
  Racism......Page 406
  Ageism......Page 410
  Discrimination against sexual minorities......Page 411
  Discrimination on the basis of physical or mental handicap......Page 412
  Tokenism......Page 414
  Reverse discrimination......Page 415
  Stigma......Page 416
  Self-worth, self-esteem and psychological well-being......Page 417
  Stereotype threat......Page 419
  Attributional ambiguity......Page 420
  Self-fulfilling prophecies......Page 421
  Dehumanisation, violence and genocide......Page 423
  Frustration–aggression......Page 426
  The authoritarian personality......Page 429
  Right-wing authoritarianism......Page 431
  Social dominance theory......Page 432
  Belief congruence......Page 433
 Summary......Page 435
 Literature, film and TV......Page 436
 Learn more......Page 437
11 Intergroup behaviour......Page 439
 Relative deprivation and social unrest......Page 441
  Relative deprivation......Page 442
  Social protest and collective action......Page 446
 Realistic conflict......Page 447
  Realistic conflict theory......Page 449
  Cooperation, competition and social dilemmas......Page 450
  Minimal groups......Page 455
  Social identity theory......Page 457
  Categorization and relative homogeneity......Page 466
  Memory......Page 467
  Distinctive stimuli and illusory correlation......Page 468
  Optimal distinctiveness......Page 469
 Intergroup emotions......Page 470
 Collective behaviour and the crowd......Page 471
  Early theories......Page 472
  Deindividuation and self-awareness......Page 473
  Emergent norm theory......Page 476
  Social identity theory......Page 478
 Improving intergroup relations......Page 479
  Propaganda and education......Page 480
  Intergroup contact......Page 481
  Pluralism and diversity......Page 487
  Communication and negotiation......Page 488
 Summary......Page 491
 Literature, film and TV......Page 492
 Learn more......Page 493
12 Aggression......Page 495
 Aggression in our community......Page 497
  Defining aggression......Page 498
  Measuring aggression......Page 499
  Biological explanations......Page 500
  Social and biosocial explanations......Page 503
  Personality and individual differences......Page 509
  Situational variables......Page 515
 General aggression model......Page 519
  Disadvantaged groups......Page 520
  Criminality and demographics......Page 521
  Subculture of violence......Page 523
 Mass media......Page 524
  A cognitive analysis......Page 525
  Rape myths, erotica and aggression......Page 527
 Domestic and intimate partner violence......Page 530
  Hurting the one we ‘love’......Page 532
  Role of society......Page 533
  Role of the state......Page 534
  Levels of explanation......Page 536
 Reducing aggression......Page 538
 Summary......Page 539
 Literature, film and TV......Page 540
 Learn more......Page 541
13 Prosocial behaviour......Page 543
  Prosocial behaviour, helping behaviour and altruism......Page 545
  The Kitty Genovese murder......Page 546
  Biology and evolution......Page 547
  Calculating whether to help......Page 549
  Empathy and altruism......Page 551
  Learning to be helpful......Page 553
 The bystander effect......Page 556
  Latané and Darley’s cognitive model......Page 557
  Mood states......Page 562
  Attributes of the person......Page 564
  Helping to prevent crime......Page 570
  Exam cheating......Page 571
  Health support networks......Page 572
 Receiving help......Page 573
  Norms for helping......Page 574
  Motives and goals......Page 575
  Volunteers and martyrs......Page 576
 Summary......Page 578
 Literature, film and TV......Page 579
 Learn more......Page 580
14 Attraction and close relationships......Page 581
 Attractive people......Page 583
  The role of our genes......Page 584
  Attractive faces......Page 585
  The search for ideals......Page 586
  Proximity......Page 587
  Familiarity......Page 588
  Attitude similarity......Page 589
  Assortative mating......Page 590
  Personal characteristics......Page 593
  Cultural stereotypes......Page 594
  A reinforcement approach......Page 595
  Relationships as a social exchange......Page 597
  Comparison levels......Page 598
  Social exchange, equity and justice......Page 599
  Social isolation and the need to affiliate......Page 601
  Effects of social deprivation......Page 602
  Attachment styles......Page 604
  What is love?......Page 607
  Love and romance......Page 608
  Labels and illusions......Page 609
  No greater love......Page 611
  Marriage......Page 612
  Same-sex romantic relationships......Page 613
  Maintaining relationships......Page 614
  For better or for worse......Page 615
  Relationship breakdown......Page 617
 Summary......Page 620
 Literature, film and TV......Page 621
 Learn more......Page 622
15 Language and communication......Page 623
 Language......Page 625
  Language, thought and cognition......Page 626
  Paralanguage and speech style......Page 628
  Social markers in speech......Page 629
  Language, identity and ethnicity......Page 630
  Speech accommodation......Page 633
  Bilingualism and second-language acquisition......Page 634
  Intergroup language and communication......Page 637
  Variations in non-verbal behaviour......Page 640
  Using the face to express emotions......Page 641
  Facial display rules......Page 643
  Gaze and eye contact......Page 647
  Postures and gestures......Page 649
  Touch......Page 651
  Up close and personal......Page 653
  Impression management and deception......Page 655
  Conversation......Page 657
  Discourse......Page 659
 Computer-mediated communication......Page 660
 Summary......Page 662
 Learn more......Page 663
16 Culture......Page 665
 The cultural context......Page 667
  Has social psychology neglected culture?......Page 668
  Defining culture......Page 669
  Origins in cultural anthropology......Page 670
  Rise of cross-cultural psychology......Page 671
  Culture, cognition and attribution......Page 672
  Culture, conformity and obedience......Page 674
  Culture and socialisation......Page 675
 Two psyches: East meets West......Page 677
  Two kinds of self......Page 678
  Values......Page 680
  Individualism and collectivism......Page 682
  Cooperation, competition and social identity......Page 683
  Collectivism and prosocial behaviour......Page 684
  Relationships......Page 685
 Culture through the lens of norms and identity......Page 687
 Contact between cultures......Page 688
  Communication, language and speech style......Page 689
  Language and understanding......Page 691
  Acculturation and culture change......Page 692
 Testing social psychology cross-culturally......Page 694
  Indigenous social psychologies......Page 695
  The search for universals......Page 696
  The multicultural challenge......Page 697
 Summary......Page 699
 Literature, film and TV......Page 700
 Learn more......Page 701
 B......Page 703
 C......Page 704
 D......Page 705
 F......Page 706
 I......Page 707
 M......Page 708
 P......Page 709
 S......Page 710
 U......Page 712
 W......Page 713
References......Page 714
 C......Page 786
 G......Page 787
 K......Page 788
 O......Page 789
 S......Page 790
 Z......Page 791
 A......Page 792
 B......Page 793
 C......Page 794
 E......Page 795
 G......Page 796
 I......Page 797
 L......Page 798
 O......Page 799
 P......Page 800
 S......Page 801
 T......Page 803
 Z......Page 804