Simulation in Chassis Technology: A Practice-oriented Introduction to the Creation of Component and Full Vehicle Models Using the Method of Multi-Body Systems

Preface
	References
Contents
List of Symbols
List of Abbreviations
Part I: Introduction to Simulation
	1: Simulation Methods
		1.1 What Is Simulation?
		1.2 Approaches
			1.2.1 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
			1.2.2 Multi-body Systems (MBS)
			1.2.3 Block-Oriented Methods
		References
	2: Systems Engineering
		2.1 Concept of Systems
			2.1.1 System Boundary
			2.1.2 Causality
			2.1.3 Transmission Behavior
			2.1.4 Range of Values
			2.1.5 Linear and Non-linear Systems
		2.2 System Behavior
			2.2.1 Systems with and Without Memory
			2.2.2 Change Behavior
		2.3 Questions from the Given System Structure
			2.3.1 System Analysis
			2.3.2 System Identification
			2.3.3 System Control
		References
	3: Modeling
		3.1 At the Beginning, There Is the Problem
		3.2 The Difference Between Erroneous and False
		3.3 Methods for Modeling
			3.3.1 Induction
			3.3.2 Deduction
			3.3.3 Method of Choice
		3.4 Model Classes
			3.4.1 Physical Models
			3.4.2 Behavioral Models
		3.5 Problem Analysis
			3.5.1 Analysis of the Question
			3.5.2 Analysis of the System
		3.6 Model Design
			3.6.1 Simulation Method
			3.6.2 Implementation of the Problem Analysis
		3.7 Verification
		3.8 Validation
			3.8.1 Basic Procedure
			3.8.2 Comparison of Measurement and Simulation
			3.8.3 Comparison of Simulation and Simulation
			3.8.4 Validation with Full Vehicle Measurements
		3.9 Single or Multiple Use
			3.9.1 Modularized or Monolithic?
			3.9.2 Separation of Data and Model
		References
	4: Numerical Analysis: The Problem with the Beginning
		4.1 Who Is Euler?
		4.2 Initial Value Problems or Numerical Integration of Differential Equations
			4.2.1 The Initial Value Problem
			4.2.2 Numerical Integration
		4.3 Numerical Integration of First Order Differential Equations
			4.3.1 A Simple Example
			4.3.2 Polygonal Method According to Euler
			4.3.3 Types of Errors
				4.3.3.1 Local Error
				4.3.3.2 Global Error
				4.3.3.3 Rounding Error
				4.3.3.4 Total Error
			4.3.4 Convergence and Stability
				4.3.4.1 Convergence
				4.3.4.2 Concept of Stability
				4.3.4.3 How Stable Systems Become Unstable
				4.3.4.4 How Unstable Systems Become Stable
		4.4 Integration Methods
			4.4.1 Method Overview
				4.4.1.1 One-Step and Multistep Methods
				4.4.1.2 Explicit and Implicit Methods
			4.4.2 Implicit Euler´s Method
			4.4.3 Runge-Kutta Method
			4.4.4 Adams Method
			4.4.5 BDF Method
		4.5 Interpolation and Extrapolation Methods
			4.5.1 Interpolation
			4.5.2 Extrapolation
		4.6 Functions for Fading in and Fading out
			4.6.1 Linear
			4.6.2 Exponential
				4.6.2.1 Progressive Increase
				4.6.2.2 Degressive Increase
				4.6.2.3 Progressive Decrease
				4.6.2.4 Degressive Decrease
			4.6.3 Trigonometric
		References
	5: Simulation Tools
		5.1 Tool Selection
			5.1.1 In-House Solution
			5.1.2 Commercial Product
		5.2 Basic Structure of a Simulation Environment
			5.2.1 Preprocessor
				5.2.1.1 Model Data in Binary Format
				5.2.1.2 Model Data in ASCII Format
			5.2.2 Solver
			5.2.3 Postprocessor
				5.2.3.1 Representation in the Time Domain
				5.2.3.2 Representation in the Frequency Domain
				5.2.3.3 Use of Own Measured Quantities
				5.2.3.4 Animation
				5.2.3.5 Further Evaluation Procedures
		5.3 Interfaces for Co-simulation
			5.3.1 Controller Import
			5.3.2 Importing MBS Models
			5.3.3 Online Simulation
			5.3.4 Potential Communication Problems
		References
	6: Simulation Process
		6.1 Parameter Procurement
			6.1.1 Need of Parameters
			6.1.2 Naming of Parameters
			6.1.3 Unit-Related Parameters
			6.1.4 One-Dimensional Parameters
			6.1.5 Multidimensional Parameters
				6.1.5.1 Characteristic Curves
				6.1.5.2 Characteristic Maps
				6.1.5.3 Number of Grid Points
				6.1.5.4 Parameters Affected by Hysteresis
			6.1.6 Vehicle Reference System
			6.1.7 Mass Properties
		6.2 Pre-Simulation Phase
			6.2.1 Consistency of Data and Model
			6.2.2 Model Diversity
			6.2.3 Simulation History
		6.3 Simulation Phase
			6.3.1 Local or Distributed
			6.3.2 Copying Procedure
			6.3.3 Licenses
		6.4 Post-Simulation Phase
			6.4.1 Documentation of the Simulation
			6.4.2 Archiving
			6.4.3 Motivation for Documentation
		6.5 Reproducibility of the Simulation Results
		References
Part II: Simulation in Chassis Technology
	7: Modeling of Chassis Components
		7.1 Fields of Application and Limits of Simulation
			7.1.1 Vehicle Dynamics and Driver Assistance Systems
			7.1.2 Ride Comfort
			7.1.3 Load Data Prediction
			7.1.4 Use of Simulators
			7.1.5 Potential of Calculation or Undiscovered Treasures
		7.2 Complexity of Models
			7.2.1 Maintenance and Modifications
			7.2.2 Computing Time Requirement
			7.2.3 Parameter Requirements
		7.3 Simple Model Approaches
		7.4 Where Is the Right Information?
		7.5 Planning and Evaluation of Maneuvers
			7.5.1 Settling Time
			7.5.2 Length and Duration of the Maneuver
		References
	8: Kinematics and Compliance
		8.1 Modeling of the Kinematics
			8.1.1 Mechanism-Oriented Models
			8.1.2 Map-Oriented Models
			8.1.3 Behavior-Oriented Models
		8.2 Modeling of the Compliance
			8.2.1 Elastic Chassis Parts
			8.2.2 Secondary Spring Rate
		8.3 Simple Elastomeric Bearing Models
			8.3.1 Linear Parameterization
			8.3.2 Non-linear Parameterization
			8.3.3 Influence of Amplitude and Frequency of Excitation
		8.4 Basics of Typical Elastomer Bearing Models
			8.4.1 Maxwell Element
			8.4.2 Kelvin-Voigt Element
			8.4.3 Combination of Several Elements
		8.5 Special Chassis Bearings
			8.5.1 Hydromounts
			8.5.2 Top Mounts
		8.6 Adjustment of Kinematics and Compliance with Measurements
			8.6.1 Creation of Wheel Travel Curves
			8.6.2 Deviations in Vehicle Level
			8.6.3 Deviations in Kinematics or Compliance
			8.6.4 Additional Springs
			8.6.5 Suspension Spring Stiffness
			8.6.6 Anti-roll Bar Stiffness
		References
	9: Springs
		9.1 Steel Springs
			9.1.1 Coil Spring
				9.1.1.1 Force Law
				9.1.1.2 Graphical Representation
				9.1.1.3 Penetration
				9.1.1.4 Free Spring Length
				9.1.1.5 Isolation
				9.1.1.6 Complex Spring Models
			9.1.2 Leaf Spring
				9.1.2.1 Force Law
				9.1.2.2 Friction
				9.1.2.3 Kinematics
			9.1.3 Torsion Bar
			9.1.4 Anti-roll Bar
				9.1.4.1 Force Law
				9.1.4.2 Anti-roll Bar Mounting
		9.2 Air Spring
			9.2.1 Determination of Quasi-static Stiffness
			9.2.2 Determination of Dynamic Stiffness
			9.2.3 Use of Measured Characteristic Curves
			9.2.4 Level Control
		9.3 Bound and Rebound Bump Stops
			9.3.1 Bound Bump Stop
			9.3.2 Rebound Bump Stop
			9.3.3 Combination
		9.4 Spring Ratio
		References
	10: Damping and Friction
		10.1 Dampers
			10.1.1 Force Law and Damper Characteristic Curve
			10.1.2 Kinematics and Mass
			10.1.3 Damper Ratio
			10.1.4 Gas Spring Forces
			10.1.5 Seals and Friction
			10.1.6 Temperature Influence
			10.1.7 Complex Damper Models
		10.2 Friction
			10.2.1 Coulomb´s Friction
			10.2.2 Fictitious Total Friction
		References
	11: Steering
		11.1 Simple Steering Models
		11.2 Steering Train
			11.2.1 Steering Gear
			11.2.2 Steering Column
			11.2.3 Steering Wheel
		11.3 Power Steering
			11.3.1 Hydraulic Power Steering (HPS)
			11.3.2 Electrohydraulic Power Steering (EHPS)
			11.3.3 Electric Power Steering (EPS)
		References
	12: Tires and Roads
		12.1 General Requirements for Tire Models
			12.1.1 Modeling the Contact Patch
			12.1.2 Friction Contact and Slip Definition
			12.1.3 Limits of the Slip Definition
				12.1.3.1 Standstill
				12.1.3.2 Different Speed Directions
			12.1.4 Standard Tyre Interface
		12.2 Tire Models for Vehicle Dynamics
			12.2.1 Magic Formula
			12.2.2 MF-Tyre and MF-SWIFT
			12.2.3 HSRI-Model
		12.3 Tire Models for Ride Comfort and Load Prediction
			12.3.1 FTire
			12.3.2 RMOD-K
			12.3.3 CDTire
		12.4 Parameterization of the Tire Models
			12.4.1 Parameterization Process
			12.4.2 Measurement of Tire Parameters
			12.4.3 Models of Varying Complexity
		12.5 Modeling the Road
			12.5.1 Measurement Methods for Road Profiles
			12.5.2 Topology of the Road
			12.5.3 Single Events
			12.5.4 Periodic Excitation
			12.5.5 Stochastic Excitations
		References
	13: Drive Train
		13.1 Specification of the Drive Torque
		13.2 Engine and Gearbox
			13.2.1 Engine Map and Time Response
			13.2.2 Mass Data
			13.2.3 Engine Mounts
		13.3 Axle and Center Differentials
	14: Brake System
		14.1 Specification of the Brake Torque
		14.2 Brake Circuits
		14.3 Brake Force Proportioning
		14.4 Functional Chain from Driver to Wheel Brake
		14.5 Brake Torque at the Wheel Brake
			14.5.1 Drum Brake
			14.5.2 Disc Brake
		14.6 Braking to a Standstill
		14.7 Coefficient of Friction and Temperature Behavior
		References
	15: Vehicle Body
		15.1 Body in White
			15.1.1 Preparation of the FE Model
			15.1.2 Modal Reduction
		15.2 Total Mass
			15.2.1 Mass Distribution
			15.2.2 Use of One Correction Mass
			15.2.3 Use of Several Correction Masses
			15.2.4 Conclusion
		15.3 Aerodynamics
			15.3.1 Wind Resistance
			15.3.2 Crosswind
			15.3.3 Buoyancy
		References
	16: The Simulated Driver
		16.1 Speed Control
			16.1.1 Initial Value
			16.1.2 Open-Loop Maneuvers
			16.1.3 Closed-Loop Maneuver
		16.2 Steer Control
			16.2.1 Open-Loop Maneuver
			16.2.2 Closed-Loop Maneuver
		16.3 Complex Driver Models
		References
	Chapter 17: The Vehicle Model as a Controlled System
		17.1 Development of Control Systems
			17.1.1 Software-in-the-Loop
			17.1.2 Hardware-in-the-Loop
				17.1.2.1 General Conditions
				17.1.2.2 Hardware and Process Requirements
				17.1.2.3 Functional Test
				17.1.2.4 Error Simulation
		17.2 Sensors
		17.3 Actuators
		References
Index