Principles of Geotechnical Engineering

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 16
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering Prior to the 18th Century......Page 18
1.3 Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856)......Page 21
1.5 Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927)......Page 22
1.6 Geotechnical Engineering after 1927......Page 24
1.7 End of an Era......Page 27
References......Page 29
Igneous Rock......Page 32
Weathering......Page 36
Sedimentary Rock......Page 39
Metamorphic Rock......Page 40
2.2 Soil-Particle Size......Page 41
2.3 Clay Minerals......Page 43
2.4 Specific Gravity (G[sub(s)])......Page 51
Sieve Analysis......Page 52
Hydrometer Analysis......Page 54
2.6 Particle-Size Distribution Curve......Page 59
2.7 Particle Shape......Page 63
Problems......Page 64
References......Page 67
3.1 Weight–Volume Relationships......Page 68
3.2 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Specific Gravity......Page 71
3.3 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content......Page 74
3.4 Various Unit-Weight Relationships......Page 76
3.5 Relative Density......Page 81
3.6 Comments on e[sub(max)] and e[sub(min)]......Page 84
3.7 Summary......Page 85
Problems......Page 86
References......Page 89
4.1 Introduction......Page 90
4.2 Liquid Limit (LL)......Page 91
4.3 Plastic Limit (PL)......Page 95
4.4 Shrinkage Limit (SL)......Page 98
4.5 Liquidity Index and Consistency Index......Page 100
4.6 Activity......Page 101
4.7 Plasticity Chart......Page 104
4.8 Soil Structure......Page 105
Structures in Cohesionless Soil......Page 106
Structures in Cohesive Soils......Page 107
Problems......Page 110
References......Page 111
5.1 Textural Classification......Page 112
5.3 AASHTO Classification System......Page 115
5.4 Unified Soil Classification System......Page 119
5.5 Summary and Comparison between the AASHTO and Unified Systems......Page 121
Problems......Page 129
References......Page 130
6.1 Compaction—General Principles......Page 131
6.2 Standard Proctor Test......Page 132
Effect of Soil Type......Page 135
6.4 Modified Proctor Test......Page 139
6.5 Structure of Compacted Clay Soil......Page 144
6.6 Effect of Compaction on Cohesive Soil Properties......Page 146
Compaction Equipment......Page 149
Factors Affecting Field Compaction......Page 151
6.8 Specifications for Field Compaction......Page 153
Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556)......Page 157
Nuclear Method......Page 158
Organic Soil......Page 161
Soil and Organic Material Mixtures......Page 162
Bottom Ash from Coal Burning and Copper Slag......Page 163
6.11 Special Compaction Techniques......Page 164
Vibroflotation......Page 165
Dynamic Compaction......Page 168
Blasting......Page 171
Problems......Page 172
References......Page 174
7.1 Bernoulli\'s Equation......Page 177
7.2 Darcy\'s Law......Page 179
7.3 Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 181
Constant-Head Test......Page 183
Falling-Head Test......Page 184
7.5 Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity—Granular Soil......Page 189
7.6 Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity—Cohesive Soils......Page 194
7.7 Directional Variation of Permeability......Page 197
7.8 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil......Page 199
7.9 Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from Wells......Page 204
Boutwell Permeameter......Page 206
Porous Probes......Page 208
7.11 Summary and General Comments......Page 209
Problems......Page 210
References......Page 213
8.1 Laplace\'s Equation of Continuity......Page 215
8.2 Continuity Equation for Solution of Simple Flow Problems......Page 217
8.3 Flow Nets......Page 221
8.4 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net......Page 222
8.5 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil......Page 226
8.6 Mathematical Solution for Seepage......Page 228
8.7 Uplift Pressure Under Hydraulic Structures......Page 230
8.8 Seepage Through an Earth Dam
on an Impervious Base......Page 231
8.9 L. Casagrande\'s Solution for Seepage Through an Earth Dam......Page 234
8.10 Filter Design......Page 236
Problems......Page 239
References......Page 242
9.1 Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage......Page 243
9.2 Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage......Page 248
9.3 Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage......Page 250
9.4 Seepage Force......Page 252
9.5 Heaving in Soil Due to Flow Around Sheet Piles......Page 254
9.6 Use of Filters to Increase the Factor of Safety against Heave......Page 257
9.7 Effective Stress in Partially Saturated Soil......Page 259
9.8 Capillary Rise in Soils......Page 260
9.9 Effective Stress in the Zone of Capillary Rise......Page 262
9.10 Summary and General Comments......Page 265
Problems......Page 266
References......Page 269
10.1 Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane......Page 270
10.2 The Pole Method of Finding Stresses Along a Plane......Page 275
10.3 Stresses Caused by a Point Load......Page 277
10.4 Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical Line Load......Page 279
10.5 Vertical Stress Caused by a Horizontal Line Load......Page 281
10.6 Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical Strip Load (Finite Width and Infinite Length)......Page 283
10.7 Vertical Stress Due to Embankment Loading......Page 284
10.8 Vertical Stress Below the Center of a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area......Page 290
10.9 Vertical Stress at Any Point Below a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area......Page 292
10.10 Vertical Stress Caused by a Rectangularly Loaded Area......Page 295
10.12 Influence Chart for Vertical Pressure......Page 302
10.13 Summary and General Comments......Page 305
Problems......Page 306
References......Page 310
11.1 Contact Pressure and Settlement Profile......Page 311
11.2 Relations for Elastic Settlement Calculation......Page 313
11.3 Fundamentals of Consolidation......Page 321
11.4 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test......Page 325
11.5 Void Ratio–Pressure Plots......Page 327
11.6 Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays......Page 330
Normally Consolidated Clay of Low to Medium Plasticity (Figure 11.14)......Page 333
11.8 Calculation of Settlement from One-Dimensional Primary Consolidation......Page 334
11.9 Compression Index (C[sub(c)] )......Page 336
11.10 Swell Index (C[sub(s)] )......Page 337
11.11 Secondary Consolidation Settlement......Page 343
11.12 Time Rate of Consolidation......Page 347
11.13 Coefficient of Consolidation......Page 355
Logarithm-of-Time Method......Page 356
Square-Root-of-Time Method......Page 357
Hyperbola Method......Page 358
Early Stage log-t Method......Page 359
11.14 Calculation of Consolidation Settlement Under a Foundation......Page 362
111.15 A Case History—Settlement Due to a Preload Fill for Construction of Tampa VA Hospital......Page 364
11.16 Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlement......Page 368
11.17 Precompression......Page 371
Derivation of Equations to Obtain  Δσ[sub((f))] and t[sub(2)]......Page 372
Procedure for Obtaining Precompression Parameters......Page 373
11.18 Summary and General Comments......Page 374
Problems......Page 375
References......Page 379
12.1 Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion......Page 382
12.2 Inclination of the Plane of Failure Caused by Shear......Page 384
12.3 Laboratory Test for Determination of Shear Strength Parameters......Page 385
12.4 Direct Shear Test......Page 386
12.5 Drained Direct Shear Test on Saturated
Sand and Clay......Page 390
12.6 General Comments on Direct Shear Test......Page 393
12.7 Triaxial Shear Test (General)......Page 397
12.8 Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Test......Page 398
12.9 Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test......Page 406
12.10 Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test......Page 412
12.11 Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay......Page 414
12.12 Empirical Relationships Between Undrained Cohesion (c[sub(u)]) and Effective Overburden Pressure (σ\'[sub(o)])......Page 415
12.13 Sensitivity and Thixotropy of Clay......Page 418
12.14 Strength Anisotropy in Clay......Page 420
12.15 Vane Shear Test......Page 423
12.16 Other Methods for Determining Undrained Shear Strength......Page 428
12.17 Shear Strength of Unsaturated Cohesive Soils......Page 429
12.18 Stress Path......Page 431
12.19 Summary and General Comments......Page 435
Problems......Page 436
References......Page 439
13.1 At-Rest, Active, and Passive Pressures......Page 441
13.2 Earth Pressure At-Rest......Page 443
13.3 Earth Pressure At-Rest for Partially Submerged Soil......Page 446
13.4 Rankine\'s Theory of Active Pressure......Page 449
13.5 Theory of Rankine\'s Passive Pressure......Page 451
13.6 Yielding of Wall of Limited Height......Page 453
13.7 A Generalized Case for Rankine Active and Passive Pressure—Granular Backfill......Page 455
Backfill—Cohesionless Soil with Horizontal Ground Surface......Page 459
Backfill—Partially Submerged Cohensionless Soil Supporting a Surcharge......Page 460
Backfill—Cohesive Soil with Horizontal Backfill......Page 463
13.9 Rankine’s Pressure for c\' –φ\'  Soil—Inclined Backfill......Page 471
COULOMB’S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY......Page 473
13.10 Coulomb\'s Active Pressure......Page 474
13.11 Graphic Solution for Coulomb\'s Active Earth Pressure......Page 478
13.12 Coulomb\'s Passive Pressure......Page 483
Active Case (Granular Backfill)......Page 485
Location of Line of Action of Resultant Force, P[sub(ae)]......Page 490
Active Case (c\' – φ\' Backfill)......Page 491
Rigid Retaining Walls......Page 496
Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls......Page 498
13.15 Summary and General Comments......Page 499
Problems......Page 500
References......Page 503
14.1 Retaining Walls with Friction......Page 505
14.2 Properties of a Logarithmic Spiral......Page 507
14.3 Procedure for Determination of Passive Earth Pressure (P[sub(p)] )—Cohesionless Backfill......Page 509
Solution by the Method of Slices......Page 511
Solution by the Method of Triangular Slices......Page 513
14.6 Braced Cuts—General......Page 516
14.5 Passive Force on Walls with Earthquake Forces......Page 515
14.7 Determination of Active Thrust on Bracing Systems of Open Cuts—Granular Soil......Page 520
14.8 Determination of Active Thrust on Bracing Systems for Cuts—Cohesive Soil......Page 521
14.9 Pressure Variation for Design of Sheetings, Struts, and Wales......Page 522
Problems......Page 526
References......Page 528
15.1 Introduction—Modes of Slope Failure......Page 529
15.2 Factor of Safety......Page 531
15.3 Stability of Infinite Slopes......Page 532
15.4 Finite Slopes—General......Page 536
15.5 Analysis of Finite Slopes with Plane Failure Surfaces (Culmann\'s Method)......Page 537
Types of Stability Analysis Procedures......Page 540
15.7 Mass Procedure—Slopes in Homogeneous Clay Soil with φ = 0......Page 541
15.8 Mass Procedure—Stability of Saturated Clay Slopes (φ = 0 Condition) with Earthquake Forces......Page 549
15.9 Mass Procedure—Slopes in Homogeneous c\' –φ Soil......Page 552
15.10 Ordinary Method of Slices......Page 561
15.11 Bishop\'s Simplified Method of Slices......Page 565
15.12 Stability Analysis by Method of Slices for Steady-State Seepage......Page 567
Michalowski’s Solution......Page 574
15.14 A Case History of Slope Failure......Page 578
15.15 Morgenstern\'s Method of Slices for Rapid Drawdown Condition......Page 582
Cuts in Saturated Clay......Page 585
Problems......Page 588
References......Page 591
16 Soil-Bearing Capacity for Shallow Foundations......Page 593
16.1 Ultimate Soil-Bearing Capacity for Shallow Foundations......Page 594
16.2 Terzaghi\'s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation......Page 596
16.3 Effect of Groundwater Table......Page 601
16.4 Factor of Safety......Page 603
16.5 General Bearing Capacity Equation......Page 606
16.6 A Case History for Evaluation of the Ultimate Bearing Capacity......Page 610
One-Way Eccentricity......Page 614
Two-Way Eccentricity......Page 616
SI Units......Page 619
Comparison with Field Settlement Observation......Page 620
16.9 Plate-Load Test......Page 621
16.10 Summary and General Comments......Page 624
Problems......Page 625
References......Page 627
17.1 Landfill Liners—Overview......Page 628
17.2 Compaction of Clay Soil for Clay Liner Construction......Page 629
17.4 Geotextiles......Page 633
17.5 Geomembranes......Page 636
Tongue-and-Groove Splice......Page 637
17.6 Geonets......Page 638
17.7 Single Clay Liner and Single Geomembrane Liner Systems......Page 639
17.8 Recent Advances in the Liner Systems for Landfills......Page 640
17.9 Leachate Removal Systems......Page 641
17.10 Closure of Landfills......Page 644
References......Page 645
18.1 Planning for Soil Exploration......Page 646
18.2 Boring Methods......Page 648
Sampling by Standard Split Spoon......Page 652
Sampling by Piston Sampler......Page 655
Cohesive Soil......Page 656
Correlation of Skempton (1986)......Page 658
Borehole Pressuremeter Test......Page 661
Cone Penetration Test......Page 663
18.7 Rock Coring......Page 665
18.8 Soil Exploration Report......Page 667
Problems......Page 669
References......Page 670
Answers to Selected Problems......Page 672
Index......Page 679