Particulate Emissions from Vehicles (RSP)

Particulate Emissions from Vehicles......Page 3
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 13
Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 15
About the Author......Page 19
1 Introduction......Page 21
1.2 Motor Vehicles......Page 24
1.3 The Legislative Framework......Page 26
2.2 Properties of Aerosol Particles......Page 29
2.2.1 Diameter and Shape......Page 30
2.2.2 Size Distribution......Page 32
2.2.3 Transport and Deposition......Page 34
2.2.4 Transformation and Mutation......Page 38
2.3 Particles in the Atmosphere......Page 42
2.3.1 Character and Behaviour......Page 43
2.3.2 Aerosols in Nature......Page 47
2.3.3 Anthropogenic Aerosols......Page 50
2.3.4 Environmental Implications......Page 57
2.4.1 Some Typical Particles Dissected......Page 62
2.4.2 What Happens Within the Engine......Page 68
2.4.3 What Happens Within the Exhaust......Page 71
2.4.4 Number Versus Mass......Page 73
2.5.1 Properties of Aerosol Particles......Page 75
2.5.2 Particles in the Atmosphere......Page 77
2.5.3 Motor Vehicle Particulate......Page 78
3.1 Introduction......Page 81
3.2 Carbonaceous Fraction: I. Classical Models......Page 82
3.2.1 Empiricisms......Page 85
3.2.2 Inception......Page 88
3.2.3 Surface Growth......Page 93
3.2.4 Agglomeration......Page 95
3.2.5 Oxidation......Page 99
3.3 Carbonaceous Fraction: II. The Combusting Plume......Page 104
3.3.1 Historical Overview......Page 105
3.3.2 Premixed Burn......Page 106
3.3.3 Mixing-controlled Burn......Page 108
3.3.4 Late Burn......Page 110
3.4 Carbonaceous Fraction: III. Wall Interactions......Page 111
3.4.1 Theoretical......Page 112
3.4.2 Experimental......Page 113
3.5 Ash Fraction......Page 115
3.5.1 Chemical Reactions......Page 116
3.5.2 Gas-to-Particle Conversion......Page 120
3.6.1 Preparatory Chemical Reactions......Page 124
3.6.2 Chemical Reactions in the Exhaust......Page 129
3.6.3 Gas-to-Particle Conversion: Models......Page 132
3.6.4 Gas-to-Particle Conversion: Measurements......Page 137
3.6.5 White Smoke......Page 139
3.7.1 Chemical Reactions......Page 142
3.7.2 Gas-to-Particle Conversion......Page 145
3.8.1 Carbonaceous Fraction I. Classical Models......Page 149
3.8.2 Carbonaceous Fraction II. The Combusting Plume......Page 151
3.8.4 Ash Fraction......Page 152
3.8.5 Organic Fraction......Page 153
3.8.6 Sulphate Fraction......Page 154
4.1 Introduction......Page 155
4.2 Within the Exhaust System......Page 156
4.2.1 Storage and Release......Page 157
4.2.2 Deposition Within Catalysts......Page 159
4.3 Within the Exhaust Plume......Page 161
4.4 Within the Transfer Line......Page 165
4.5 Within the Dilution Tunnel......Page 167
4.6 On the Filter......Page 170
4.7.1 Within the Exhaust System......Page 172
4.7.4 Within the Dilution Tunnel......Page 173
4.7.6 General Remarks......Page 174
5.1 Introduction......Page 177
5.2.1 Drawing a Sample of Exhaust Gas......Page 178
5.2.2 Diluting the Exhaust......Page 180
5.2.3 Collection onto a Filter......Page 185
5.2.4 Fractionation by Gasification......Page 188
5.2.5 Fractionation by Dissolution......Page 191
5.2.6 Chemically Assaying the Organic Fraction......Page 195
5.2.7 Biologically Assaying the Organic Fraction......Page 199
5.3 Particulate Measured Individually......Page 202
5.3.1 Inertial Mobility......Page 203
5.3.2 Electrical Mobility......Page 205
5.3.3 Laser-induced Incandescence......Page 206
5.3.4 Light Scattering......Page 209
5.4.1 Photoacousticity......Page 211
5.4.2 Photoelectric and Diffusion Charging......Page 213
5.4.3 Electrical Charge......Page 215
5.4.4 Flame Ionisation......Page 217
5.4.5 Mass......Page 218
5.4.6 Smoke......Page 220
5.5.1 Particulate Measured Conventionally......Page 224
5.5.2 Particulate Measured Individually......Page 226
5.5.3 Particulate Measured Collectively......Page 227
5.5.4 Further Remarks......Page 229
6.1 Introduction......Page 231
6.2.1 Microstructure......Page 232
6.2.2 Morphology......Page 235
6.2.3 Density......Page 239
6.2.4 Surface Area......Page 242
6.2.5 Electrical Charge......Page 244
6.3.1 Carbonaceous Fraction......Page 248
6.3.2 Ash Fraction......Page 250
6.3.3 Organic Fraction......Page 253
6.3.4 Sulphate Fraction......Page 257
6.4 Biological Characterisation......Page 258
6.5 Demographic Characterisation......Page 260
6.6.1 Physical Characterisation......Page 264
6.6.3 Biological Characterisation......Page 266
6.6.4 Demographic Characterisation......Page 267
7.1 Introduction......Page 269
7.2 Fuel Formulation......Page 270
7.2.1 Sulphur......Page 272
7.2.2 Hydrocarbons......Page 274
7.2.3 Oxygenates......Page 276
7.2.4 Additives......Page 281
7.2.5 Volatility, Cetane Number and Density......Page 282
7.3.1 The Injector Nozzle......Page 285
7.3.2 Injection Pressure......Page 286
7.3.3 Injection Scheduling......Page 289
7.4 Exhaust Gas Recirculation......Page 291
7.5.1 External to the Engine......Page 295
7.5.2 Internal to the Engine......Page 297
7.6.1 Oil in Particulate......Page 299
7.6.2 Particulate in Oil......Page 305
7.7 Alternative Combustion Systems......Page 311
7.8 Aftertreatment......Page 313
7.8.1 Catalytic Converters......Page 314
7.8.2 Particulate Filters......Page 320
7.9.1 Fuel Formulation......Page 326
7.9.2 Fuel Injection......Page 328
7.9.4 Induction......Page 329
7.9.6 Alternative Combustion Systems......Page 330
7.9.7 Aftertreatment......Page 331
8.1 Introduction......Page 333
8.2.1 Organometallic Fuel Additives and Ash......Page 334
8.2.2 Oxidation Catalysts and Sulphates......Page 337
8.3 Port-injection Engines......Page 338
8.3.1 Formation......Page 339
8.3.2 Characterisation......Page 342
8.3.3 Abatement......Page 345
8.4 Direct-injection Engines......Page 346
8.4.1 Formation......Page 347
8.4.2 Characterisation......Page 350
8.4.3 Abatement......Page 353
8.5 Two-stroke Engines......Page 354
8.6.1 Port-injection Engines......Page 358
8.6.2 Direct-injection Engines......Page 359
8.6.3 Two-stroke Engines......Page 360
9.1 Introduction......Page 361
9.2 Roads......Page 362
9.3 Brakes......Page 364
9.4 Tyres......Page 366
9.5 Exhausts......Page 368
9.6 Catalysts......Page 369
9.7.2 Brakes......Page 372
9.7.5 Catalysts......Page 373
10.1 Introduction......Page 375
10.2 Public Exposure......Page 376
10.2.1 Nanoparticles......Page 380
10.3 Public Health......Page 382
10.4.1 Particle Deposition and Clearance......Page 384
10.4.2 The Chemistry and Biochemistry of Particle-induced Reactions......Page 387
10.4.3 Particle-induced Diseases......Page 389
10.5 Epidemiology......Page 391
10.6 In Vitro......Page 395
10.7 In Vivo......Page 397
10.8 Humans......Page 401
10.9.3 Pathogenesis......Page 402
10.9.5 In Vitro......Page 403
10.9.8 Which Particulate Fraction?......Page 404
10.10 Glossary of Biomedical Terms......Page 405
11.1.1 Signal-to-noise Ratios......Page 407
11.1.4 The Soot Sensor in Engine and Aftertreatment Management......Page 408
11.1.7 Nanoparticles in Real Exhaust Plumes (and the Ambient)......Page 409
11.1.11 Toxicity as a Function of Particle Size......Page 410
11.2 Smaller Particles in Larger Numbers; or Larger Particles in Smaller Numbers......Page 411
11.3 Smaller and Smaller and Smaller......Page 415
11.4 Broader Questions of Policy......Page 416
Further Reading......Page 419
Literature Cited (Cross-referenced Against the Text)......Page 421
Index......Page 505