Nutritional assessment of athletes

Cover Page......Page 1
Title: Nutritional Assessment of Athletes: SECOND EDITION......Page 3
ISBN 9781439818213......Page 4
Dedication......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
The Editors......Page 9
Contributors......Page 11
Section I Dietary Assessment of Athletes......Page 14
Contents......Page 16
1.2 Methods of Assessing Food Intake......Page 17
1.2.2 Twenty-Four Hour Dietary Recall......Page 18
1.2.4 Issues with Nutrition Assessment......Page 19
Ta ble 1.1 Comparison of Dietary Assessment Methods......Page 20
1.2.4.2 Snacking......Page 21
1.2.4.5 Dietary Assessment vs. Clinical Testing......Page 22
Ta ble 1.2 Average Number of Days for Dietary Intake Assessment to Accurately Determine Nutrient Status in Men and Women......Page 23
1.2.6 Dietary Assessment Abroad......Page 24
1.3.1 Periodization of Training and Dietary Periodization......Page 26
1.3.2 Fluid Intake......Page 29
1.3.3 Vegetarian Diets and Assessment......Page 33
1.3.4 Gastrointestinal Issues and Assessment......Page 34
1.3.5 Supplements......Page 36
1.3.6.2 Dining Out and Eating on the Road......Page 38
1.3.7 W eight Management......Page 39
1.4.1 Internet Web Sites......Page 43
1.4.2 Special Considerations When Choosing Software......Page 45
1.4.3 Databases......Page 48
1.4.4.1 New Foods......Page 50
1.4.4.3 Ethnic Foods......Page 51
1.4.5.1 Sports Drinks......Page 52
1.4.5.4 Fluid Hydration Status......Page 54
1.5 Conclusions......Page 55
References......Page 57
Ta ble 1.3 Periodization of Diverse Sports......Page 28
Ta ble 1.4 Guidelines to Choose Dietary Software......Page 49
Ta ble 1.5 Carbohydrate- Electrolytes Beverages versus Water......Page 53
Ta ble 1.6 Supplements: Their Safety and Effectiveness......Page 56
2.1 Introduction......Page 64
2.3 Dietary Guidelines......Page 65
2.4 Dietary Reference Intakes......Page 67
2.5 Approaches to Assessing Dietary Adequacy......Page 68
2.6.1 Energy Intake......Page 71
2.6.2 Carbohydr ates......Page 72
2.6.4 Fat......Page 75
2.6.5 Micronutrients......Page 76
2.6.6 Fluid......Page 78
References......Page 79
Section II Anthropometric Assessment of Athletes......Page 84
3.1 Introduction......Page 86
3.2 Hydrodensitometry......Page 87
3.3 Total Body Water......Page 90
3.4 Dual Energy X- Ray Absorptiometry......Page 92
3.5 Air Displacement Plethysmography......Page 94
3.6 Bioelectrical Impedance......Page 95
3.7 Surface Anthropometry......Page 97
3.8 Specified Landmarks for the Assessment of Skinfolds*......Page 101
Acromiale......Page 102
Mid- Acromiale– Radiale......Page 103
Triceps Skinfold Site......Page 104
Subscapulare......Page 105
Iliocristale......Page 107
Iliospinale......Page 108
Supraspinale Skinfold Site......Page 110
Medial Calf Skinfold Site......Page 111
Front Thigh Skinfold Site......Page 112
Subscapular......Page 113
Front Thigh......Page 114
3.9 Ultrasound......Page 115
3.10 Three- and Four- Compartment Models......Page 116
3.11.1 Computed Tomography......Page 117
3.11.2 Magnetic Resonance......Page 118
3.11.3 Three-Dimensional Photonic Scanning......Page 119
3.12 Practical Recommendations......Page 120
3.14 Conclusions......Page 121
References......Page 122
4.1 Introduction......Page 134
4.2.2.1 Muscle Characteristics......Page 136
4.2.2.2 Neural Activation......Page 138
4.2.2.3 Hormonal Factors......Page 139
4.3.2.1 Muscle Mass......Page 140
4.3.2 Factors Influencing Anaerobic Performance......Page 143
4.3.2.2 Bioenergetics and Energy Metabolism......Page 144
4.4.2 Factors Influencing Endurance Development......Page 146
4.4.2.1 VO2max......Page 147
4.4.2.2 Lactate Threshold......Page 150
4.4.2.4 Muscle Mass......Page 151
References......Page 152
Ta ble 4.1 Muscle Strength for Females and Males as Reported in Gender Comparison Studies for Different Muscle Groups......Page 137
Ta ble 4.2 Physiological Comparisons between Elite Men and Women Marathon Runners for Indices of VO2max......Page 148
Section III Physical Activity Needs Assessment of Athletes......Page 162
5.1 Introduction......Page 164
5.2.1 Direct Calorimetry......Page 166
5.2.2 Indirect Calorimetry......Page 167
5.2.3 Doubly-Labeled Water......Page 171
5.2.4 Indirect Methods of Estimating Energy Expend......Page 172
5.3 Energy for Work and Sport......Page 174
5.4.1 Aerobic Power or VO2max......Page 176
5.4.2 Anaerobic Thr eshold......Page 179
5.4.3 Economy of Movement......Page 181
5.5 Resting Energy Expenditure......Page 182
5.5.2 Estimating Resting Energy Expenditure......Page 183
5.5.3 Factors Influencing Resting Energy Expenditure......Page 184
5.7 Future Research Concerns......Page 188
5.8 Conclusions......Page 189
References......Page 190
6.1 Introduction......Page 196
6.2 Definitions......Page 198
6.3.1.1 T he Doubly- Labeled Water ( DL W) Technique......Page 200
6.3.1.2.1 Measuring Energy Expenditure......Page 203
6.3.1.3 P edometers......Page 204
6.3.1.4 Accelerometers......Page 206
6.3.1.5 Combined Approaches and New Devices......Page 211
6.3.2 Subjective Approaches......Page 212
6.3.2.1 D irect Observation......Page 213
6.3.2.3 P hysical Activity Questionnaires......Page 214
6.3.2.4 S elf- Report Physical Activity Questionnaires......Page 216
6.4 Conclusions......Page 217
References......Page 218
7.1 Introduction......Page 226
7.2.1 Cardiorespiratory and Endurance Genes......Page 227
7.2.2 Muscle Growth and Repair Genes......Page 228
7.2.3 Pain Relief Genes......Page 229
7.2.4 Fracture Repair Genes......Page 230
7.3 Molecular and Epigenetic Changes during Exercise......Page 231
7.4 Implications for Nutritional Assessment......Page 233
7.5 Gene Transfer and Potential Applications in the Field of Sports Nutrition......Page 234
7.6 Gene \" Doping\" and Its Detection......Page 235
References......Page 237
Section IV Biochemical Assessment of Athletes......Page 246
8.1 Introduction......Page 248
8.2.1 Dietary Lipids......Page 249
8.2.2 Digestion and Absorption......Page 250
8.2.3 Lipid Transport......Page 251
8.3 Athlete Screening......Page 253
8.3.1 Types of Lipid Disorders......Page 254
8.3.2 Lipid Markers and Norms......Page 255
8.3.3 Screening Process......Page 257
8.4 Lowering Blood Li pids......Page 259
8.6 Future Research Directions......Page 262
References......Page 263
Contents......Page 268
9.1.2 Proteins versus Amino Acids......Page 269
9.1.3 Protein Quality......Page 270
9.1.4 Adaptation to Exercise: Signals, Transcription, and Translation......Page 272
9.2.1.1 Protein Synthesis......Page 273
9.2.1.3 Net Balance......Page 274
9.2.2 Fates of Amino Acids Other than Protein Synthesis......Page 276
9.3 Importance of Energy Balance......Page 277
9.4.1.1.1 Nitrogen Balance......Page 279
9.4.1.1.2 Isotopes in Metabolic Research......Page 280
9.4.1.2.1 3- Methyl- Histidine......Page 282
9.4.1.2.2 Fractional Synthesis Rate......Page 283
9.4.1.2.3 Two- and Three- Pool Models......Page 285
9.4.1.2.5 Components of Skeletal Muscle......Page 287
9.4.2.2 Body Mass and Body Composition......Page 288
9.5.2 Protein Turnover and Endurance Exercise......Page 289
9.5.3 Timing of Protein Intake......Page 290
9.6 Protein Requirements......Page 291
9.7.2 Aging......Page 292
9.8 Future Directions......Page 293
References......Page 294
10.1 Introduction......Page 302
10.2.2 Vitamin Bioavailability, Active Forms, and Storage......Page 303
10.3 Assessment Guidelines and Considerations......Page 313
10.4 Assessment Methods......Page 317
10.5 Future Research......Page 318
References......Page 319
Contents......Page 324
11.1 Introduction......Page 325
11.1.2 B iochemical Measures......Page 326
11.1.2.2 Sample Contamination......Page 327
11.2 Calcium......Page 328
11.2.1.3 U rinary Calcium Excretion......Page 329
11.2.1.4 Calcium Reference Intervals and Data from Athletes......Page 330
11.3.1 M ethods for Assessment of Chr omium Status......Page 331
11.4 Copper......Page 332
11.4.1.2 Ceruloplasmin......Page 333
11.4.1.4 Cytochrome c Oxidase......Page 334
11.4.1.5 Copper Reference Intervals and Data from Athletes......Page 335
11.5.1.2 Ferritin......Page 336
11.5.1.4 Soluble Transferrin Receptor......Page 337
11.5.1.6 Iron Reference Intervals and Data from Athletes......Page 338
11.6.1 Methods for Assessment of Magnesium Status......Page 339
11.6.1.4 B lood Cells......Page 340
11.7 Phosphorus......Page 341
11.7.1.1 P hosphorus Reference Intervals and Data from Phosphate Supplementation Trials......Page 342
11.8.1.2 Zinc- Containing Enzymes......Page 343
11.9 Inflammation and Mineral Status......Page 344
11.10 Future Research Needs......Page 345
Note......Page 346
References......Page 347
12.1 Introduction......Page 354
12.2.1 The Eff ects of Hypohydration on Thermoregulatory and Card iovascular Function......Page 355
12.2.2 The Effect of Hypohydration on Exercise Performance......Page 356
12.2.3 Hydration and Health......Page 357
12.3 Assessment of Hydration Status......Page 358
12.3.1 Body Mass Changes......Page 361
12.3.2.1 Urine Specific Gravity......Page 362
12.3.2.3 Urine Color......Page 363
12.3.2.5 Interpretation of Urinary Indices......Page 364
12.3.3 Hematological Indices......Page 365
12.3.5 T otal Body Water Assessment......Page 366
12.4.1 Sweat Rate Assessment......Page 367
12.4.2 Sweat Composition Assessment......Page 371
12.5 Recommendations for Fluid Intake......Page 372
12.5.2 Fluid Replacement during Exercise......Page 373
12.5.3 Postexercise Fluid Replacement......Page 375
12.6 Conclusions and Future Di rections......Page 377
12.7 Practical Recommendations......Page 378
References......Page 379
Section V Clinical Assessment of Athletes......Page 388
Contents......Page 390
13.2 Nutritional Status......Page 391
13.2.2 Physical Examination......Page 392
13.3.1.1 Competitive Athletes......Page 393
13.3.2 Physical Examination......Page 395
13.3.8.1 Competitive Athletes......Page 397
13.3.8.2 S edentary and Elderly Athletes......Page 398
13.3.5 M icronutrient Levels......Page 396
13.3.10.1 Strength......Page 399
13.4.1 Eligibility Recommendations for Competitive Athletes......Page 400
13.4.4 Asthma......Page 401
13.4.8 Anemia......Page 402
References......Page 403