Norse Greenland: Viking peasants in the Arctic

ContentsList of Figures Preface  INTRODUCTION1 The problem2 Earlier researchRediscovery and mapping of the Norse ruins 1721-1920The stone ruins are described and categorised 1921- ca. 1970The university tradition enters Norse Greenland archaeology from the 1970-iesNatural sciences in Norse Greenland scholarship from the 1970-iesThe present dominance of the ecological model3 My contribution CHAPTER ITHE INITIAL SETTLEMENT IN AD 985/61 The Icelandic sagas as historical sourcesIslendingabok and LandnamabokWho wrote the Vinland sagas and for what purpose?Categories of sagas which are relevant for Norse GreenlandHow reliable was the oral tradition on which the saga authors built? Sagas used as "narratives" or "remnants"2 The first GreenlandersWhen did they go?What motivated them? Were the first immigrants Norwegians or Icelanders? The chieftain and his clientsWas the Western settlement organised differently from the Eastern?Population size at Eirik Raudi's time and later3 Conclusion CHAPTER IIPOLITICAL ORGANISATION1 Ethnic identityLanguageHow did they name their ethnic group?The Norse narrative tradition on GreenlandCourtly culture imitated on Greenland?2 Violence in a pre-state societyThe Groenlendinga thattr as historical sourceThe sense of honourWere feuds less common on Greenland than on Iceland?3 Jurisdiction on pre-state GreenlandWas there a Greenland law?Legal proceedings at the Gardar ThingHow disputes in practice were settled4 The Brattahlid chieftain as pre-state political leader5 Ties to the Norwegian king before 1261Collective obligations to the Norwegian crown before 1261?Were individual Greenlanders members of the king's hird? 6 Attempts to organise a state administration after 1261The submission in 1261The courts of justiceThe royal manors at Foss and HvalseyA state which failed its subjects  CHAPTER IIICHURCH AND RELIGION1 Christianisation The pagansCollective and individual conversionThe Norwegian king and the Christianisation of Greenland2 Church organisation before the parish AD 1000-1124Private chapelsMinsters on Greenland?Flexible burial customsBishops on Greenland before 1124Power in the Greenland church before 11243 The parish 1124 - 1340The titheThe number of parish churches at population maximumHow many parish churches remained ca. 1360?How often did the Greenlanders attend mass in their parish church? Who owned the parish churches?What did the parish churches look like?The parish church as centre for the diffusion of literacyThe Norse Greenlanders' aesthetic models The parish as framework for social life and mentalities4 The Gardar dioceseThe bishopDid the bishops live and work on Greenland?The Gardar diocese and the archbishop in NidarosThe Gardar diocese and the pope5 The monasteriesEconomyReligious functions6 The supernatural and the natural worldChristian miracles and magicGeographic explorationA theoretical interest in the natural worldCombining religion and practical rationality7 The Greenland church in its final decades 1340-1410The bishopsThe church organisation after the bishops had left Laymen's religious rituals in their parish churchesLaymen's religious practices in their homes CHAPTER IVTRADE AND SHIPPING1 The importsNecessities: iron and timberLuxuries conferring statusHow important were imports to the Norse Greenlanders?2 The exportsWalrus tusk and walrus ropeWalrus tusks as raw material for objects of art The Norse Greenlanders' "nordrseta" in the Disco regionHides and skinsFalcons and polar bearsLamp oilForeign trade and the Greenlanders' material needs3 Ships and boats Ocean-going shipsInshore ships of middle sizeSmall boats for use in the fjordsDriftwood as raw material in boatbuildingWere ships and boats built on Norse Greenland?4 Crossing the Greenland OceanBergen - the commercial centre of the Norse realmTackling the problemsThose who failed to reach their destinationHow many ships reached Norse Greenland annually?5 The merchants Country of origin Part time and professional merchantsRetailing foreign goods on Greenland6 The political framework for trade and shippingPre-state GreenlandUnder the Norwegian state 1261 - 1380Under Danish rule 1380-1410The hypothesis about "the royal monopoly ship"Merchants and stateCHAPTER VSUBSISTENCE FOOD PRODUCTION1 The basis: animal husbandryThe local resourcesMilk from cowsMilk from goats and sheep Meat from domestic animalsPigsHorsesConclusions and sources of error2 Providing fodder for domestic animalsIndoor or outdoor winter feeding?Gathering winter fodder in outfields and common landImproving the meadow Summer pasturesSaeters Tradition and flexibility3 Animal husbandry in crisis?Landowners exploiting peasants?Soil erosion and soil exhaustionThe climateRising sea levelConclusion: A sustainable agricultural production4 Hunting and fishing as flexible supplementsHunting and fishing open to all?Seals - less dominant than assumed?Reindeer -the most attractive gameWhalesHunting expeditions to the east coastCod and other sea fishesChar and other fishes in lakes and riversHow important was fish for the Norse Greenlanders? Edible plantsPeasants and hunters5 Did the quality of the diet decline?From terrestrial to marine food in the diet?Was the Norsemen's "marine food" fish or seal?From cattle to sheep and goats?The Norwegian model CHAPTER VIONE LAND - TWO SOCIETIES1 Inuit attitude to violenceWho exploited Greenland's resources most efficiently?How exposed were Inuit to starvation?Violence to demonstrate power Sadism Fear of being killedThe social background2 Norse encounters with Inuit from beginning to endDid the Inuit exterminate Dorset?Norse and Inuit AD 985 - 1341Ivar Bardarson's account 1341 - 1363How did the Norse defend themselves?When did the Western Settlement cease to exist?Inuit close in on the Eastern Settlement 1379 - 1406The last shipWhen did the Eastern Settlement cease to exist?Inuit memories of a vanished societyWas the end of the Eastern Settlement violent?Was the end preceded by a slow population decline?Four new methods and four new conclusions3 "We found a rich land, but are not destined to enjoy it" BibliographyAppendix iAppendix ii, Introductory map and maps 1- 10