New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering: Sustainable Agriculture: Microorganisms as Biostimulants

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Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Preface
CHAPTER 1 - Role of microorganism as new generation plant bio-stimulants: An assessment
	1.1 Background
	1.2 Introduction of plant bio-stimulants
	1.3 Basic mechanism of bio-stimulants
	1.4 Sources of plant bio-stimulants
	1.5 Microbes as plant bio-stimulant
		1.5.1 Fungi as bio-stimulants
		1.5.2 Bacteria as bio-stimulants
		1.5.3 Microbial consortia as bio-stimulants
	1.6 Role of microbes in nutrient uptake/stimulation
		1.6.1 Nitrogen fixation
		1.6.2 Phosphate solubilisation
		1.6.3 Hormones and other secondary metabolite
	1.7 Conclusions
	References
CHAPTER 2 - Exploiting biostimulant properties of Trichoderma for sustainable plant production
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Trichoderma metabolism: from decomposers to plant growth promoters
	2.3 Trichoderma-plant chemical dialogue
		2.3.1 Trichoderma released compounds in plant growth promotion
	2.4 Trichoderma-induced resistance to plant pathogens
		2.4.1 Salicylic acid-mediated interactions
		2.4.2 Jasmonic acid and other oxylipins
		2.4.3 Biocontrol of aphids, nematodes and other pests
	2.5 Trichoderma and plant nutrition
		2.5.1 Major nutritional needs of crops
		2.5.2 Phosphate nutrition
		2.5.3 Nitrate use efficiency
		2.5.4 Iron acquisition
		2.5.5 Better usage of organic nutriments
	2.6 Soil acidification in Trichoderma-plant interactions
	2.7 Salt stress tolerance mediated by Trichoderma
		2.7.1 Plant adaptive responses to salinity
		2.7.2 Trichoderma improves plant adaptation to salt stress
	2.8 Conclusions and future prospects
	References
CHAPTER 3 - Bacillus rhizobacteria: A versatile biostimulant for sustainable agriculture
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Diversity of Bacillus species
	3.3 Direct mechanism of plant growth promotion
		3.3.1 Phosphate solubilization
		3.3.2 Nitrogen fixation
		3.3.3 Potassium solubilization
		3.3.4 Phytohormones production
		3.3.5 Siderophores production
	3.4 Indirect mechanism
		3.4.1 Antibiotic production
		3.4.2 Lytic enzyme production
		3.4.3 Induction of systemic resistance
			3.4.3.1 Phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL)
			3.4.3.2 Phenols
			3.4.3.3 β−1, 3-glucanases (PR2)
			3.4.3.4 Peroxidase (PO)
			3.4.3.5 Polyphenol oxidase (PPO)
			3.4.3.6 Scavengers of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
	3.5 Future prospects
	References
CHAPTER  4 - Arbuscular mycorrhizae, a treasured symbiont to agriculture
	4.1 Introduction to mycorrhiza
	4.2 VAM in agriculture
		4.2.1 AMF and PGPR
		4.2.2 Soil fertility and nutrient uptake
		4.2.3 Water uptake
		4.2.4 Soil erosion prevention
		4.2.5 Effect on plant physiology and biochemical attributes
		4.2.6 AMF as biocontrol agent
		4.2.7 Weed control
	4.3 Application of AMF in bioremediation
	4.4 Renaturation and afforestation
	4.5 Mass production of VAM: the past, present and future
		4.5.1 Substrate based production
		4.5.2 Substrate free production
		4.5.3 In-vitro production of AM fungi
		4.5.4 Formulation of AMF
		4.5.5 Factors affecting AMF bioinoculants
	4.6 Conclusion
	References
CHAPTER  5 - Micro and macroalgae: A potential biostimulant for abiotic stress management and crop production
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Review of literature and recent developments
		5.2.1 Global production of algae
		5.2.2 Harvesting of algal biomass
		5.2.3 Extraction of bioactive compounds from macroalgae
		5.2.4 Extraction of bioactive components from microalgae
		5.2.5 Phytohormone constituents of algae
		5.2.6 Mineral and organic constituents of algae
		5.2.7 Formulation of algal biostimulants
		5.2.8 Applications of algal biostimulants
		5.2.9 Challenges in commercialization of algal biostimulants and tackling strategies
	5.3 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
CHAPTER 6 - Fluorescent Pseudomonads: A multifaceted biocontrol agent for sustainable agriculture
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Species diversity of Fluorescent Pseudomanads
	6.3 Mechanisms of Fluorescent Pseudomanads
		6.3.1 Plant growth promotion
		6.3.2 Siderophores
		6.3.3 Hydrogen cyanide production
		6.3.4 Antibiotic production
			6.3.4.1 2,4-Diacetyl phloro glucinol (DAPG)
			6.3.4.2 Phenazines
			6.3.4.3 Pyrrolnitrin and pyoluteorin
		6.3.5 Lytic enzyme production
		6.3.6 Induced systemic resistance
	6.4 Future prospects
	References
CHAPTER 7 - Role of Piriformospora indica in inducing soil microbial communities and drought stress tolerance in plants
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Soil microbial communities: benign hidden players in plant growth
	7.3 P. indica: an overview
		7.3.1 P. indica mediated microbe-microbe interaction shape rhizospheric microbiome
		7.3.2 P. indica as a promoter of synergistic tripartite symbiosis
	7.4 Basic mechanisms in plants to counter drought stress
	7.5 Morphological and physiological innate responses in plants against drought stress
		7.5.1 Plants morphological responses in drought stress condition
		7.5.2 Plants physiological response in drought
	7.6 Multidimensional contribution of P. indica in providing tolerance against drought stress
		7.6.1 Bioprotectant properties of P. indica to confer drought stress tolerance in maize: a case study
	7.7 P. indica mediated adaptative responses generated in rice plants to cope up drought stress
	7.8 Scope of P. indica for the promotion of sustainable agriculture in xerophytic habitats
	7.9 Conclusion
	References
CHAPTER 8 - Microbes-based bio-stimulants towards sustainable oilseeds production: Nutrient recycling and genetics involved
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Soil microbes and plant interactions
		8.2.1 Plant and microorganisms
		8.2.2 Soil and microorganism
		8.2.3 Soil and plant
		8.2.4 The three way interaction
	8.3 Geochemical changes in plant rhizosphere and release of mineral nutrients
		8.3.1 Weathering
		8.3.2 Carbonates and phosphates precipitation
		8.3.3 Nutrient cycling
	8.4 VAM fungi for efficient nutrient acquisition and mobilization
		8.4.1 Uniqueness of VAM
		8.4.2 Interaction of biotic and abiotic factors with VAM
			8.4.2.1 Abiotic factors
			8.4.2.2 Biotic factors
		8.4.3 Mass production of VAM
		8.4.4 Tips for the efficient use of VAM
	8.5 Genetics involved in nutrient cycling
		8.5.1 Nitrogen cycle
		8.5.2 Carbon cycle
		8.5.3 Phosphorus transformation
		8.5.4 Potassium solubilization
		8.5.5 Sulphur transformation
	8.6 Conclusions
	References
CHAPTER 9 - Role of soil microbes in micronutrient solubilization
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Importance of micronutrients in plant nutrition
	9.3 Sources and pools of micronutrients in soil and their significance in plant uptake
	9.4 Factors affecting the availability of micronutrients
		9.4.1 Cationic micronutrients
		9.4.2 Anionic micronutrients
	9.5 Influence of rhizosphere in micronutrient availability
	9.6 Soil pH and pE as an indicator of micronutrient availability
	9.7 Micronutrients
		9.7.1 ZINC (Zn)
		9.7.2 Manganese
		9.7.3 Iron (Fe)
		9.7.4 Copper (Cu)
		9.7.5 Boron (B)
		9.7.6 Molybdenum (Mo)
		9.7.7 Chlorine (Cl)
	9.8 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
CHAPTER 10 - Sustainable induction of systemic resistance in response to potential biological control agents in crops
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Novel scenario of biological control
	10.3 Suppressive soils pathogens
	10.4 Potential in PGPR
	10.5 Induction of systemic resistance
		10.5.1 Role of PGPR
		10.5.2 Abundance of antibiotics
		10.5.3 Siderophore production
		10.5.4 Poduction of HCN
		10.5.5 Systemic acquired resistance in plants
		10.5.6 Mechanisms of induced systemic resistance
		10.5.7 Conception molecular in PGPR
		10.5.8 Biocontrol products of PGPR
	10.6 Fungal BCAs
		10.6.1 Relevance of Trichoderma
	10.7 Potental of non-pathogenic strains
		10.7.1 Fusarium strains
		10.7.2 Pythium strains
		10.7.3 Potential of penicillum strain
		10.7.4 Potential of Rhizoctonia strain
		10.7.5 Potential of Colletotrichum starin
	10.8 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
CHAPTER 11 - Psychrophilic microbes: Biodiversity, beneficial role and improvement of cold stress in crop plants
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Historical background
	11.3 Biodiversity of psychrophilic microbes
	11.4 Mechanisms of adaptation of psychrophilic microbes
		11.4.1 Structural adaptations
	11.5 Psychrophilic microbes used in crop improvement
	11.6 The beneficial role of psychrophilic microbes in crop performance
		11.6.1 Biological nitrogen fixation
		11.6.2 Phytohormones production
		11.6.3 Solubilization of beneficial nutrients
		11.6.4 Siderophore production
		11.6.5 Antifungal activity, antibiotics and enzymes
	11.7 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
CHAPTER12 - Role of plant-associated bacteria as bio-stimulants in alleviation of chromium toxicity in plants
	12.1 Cr toxicity to the environment
		12.1.1 Effects on human
		12.1.2 Effect on plants
		12.1.3 Effect on microorganisms
	12.2 Strategies of Cr remediation from contaminated environment
	12.3 Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and their beneficial traits
		12.3.1 Direct mechanism of plant growth promotion
			12.3.1.1 Fixation of molecular nitrogen (N)
			12.3.1.2 Mineral phosphate solubilization (P-solubilization)
			12.3.1.3 Auxins (IAA)
			12.3.1.4 ACC deaminize
			12.3.1.5 Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
		12.3.2 Indirect mechanisms
			12.3.2.1 Antibiosis
			12.3.2.2 Siderophores
			12.3.2.3 Lytic enzymes
	12.4 Cr induced oxidative stress in plants and anti-oxidative enzymes
		12.4.1 ROS scavenging system in plants
			12.4.1.1 Enzymatic antioxidants
			12.4.1.2 Non-enzymatic antioxidants
	12.5 PGPR and phytoremediation
		12.5.1 Bacterial colonization of plant rhizosphere
		12.5.2 Microbial mediated bioavailability of metals in the plant rhizosphere
		12.5.3 Role of microbes in mobilization of heavy metals from polluted soils through phytoextraction method
		12.5.4 Role of microbes in phytostabilization of metals from polluted soils through immobilization process
	12.6 Case study of Cr phytoremediation mediated by root-associated bacteria
	12.7 Conclusion
	References
CHAPTER 13 - Microbe-based plant biostimulants and their formulations for growth promotion and stress tolerance in plants
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Microbes as plant biostimulants
		13.2.1 Bacteria-based plant biostimulants
		13.2.2 Fungi-based plant biostimulants
	13.3 Mechanism of development of microbe-based plant biostimulants
	13.4 Microbial bioformulation based plant biostimulants
		13.4.1 Solid bioformulation
		13.4.2 Liquid bioformulation
	13.5 Microbes as biofertilizers
		13.5.1 Nitrogen-fixing microbes
		13.5.2 Phosphate mineralizing and solubilizing microbes
		13.5.3 Siderophore producing microbes
		13.5.4 Phytohormone producing microbes
	13.6 Biopesticides
	13.7 Significance of microbes in abiotic and biotic stress alleviation
		13.7.1 Role in management of abiotic stress
		13.7.2 Role in management of biotic stress
	13.8 Challenges and future prospects
	13.9 Conclusions
	References
CHAPTER  14 - Microbial consortia for augmentation of plant growth–revisiting the promising approach towards sustainable ag ...
	
	14.1 Rhizosphere: a nutrient rich niche
	14.2 Microbial marketing strategies
	14.3 Plant microbe interactions
	14.4 Microbe-microbe interactions
	14.5 Plant probiotics
	14.6 Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
	14.7 Nitrogen fixation
	14.8 Mineral acquisition
	14.9 Phytohormone production
	14.10 Prevention of diseases and development of ISR
	14.11 Biocontrol agents
	14.12 Biostimulants
	14.13 Microbial consortia: the dynamics of co-operation
	14.14 Binary consortium
	14.15 Three or multi partner consortium development
	14.16 Multi-omics for development of microbial consortia for plant growth promotion
	References
CHAPTER  15 - Phosphate solubilization by microorganisms
	15.1 Introduction
		15.1.1 Phosphorus in the soil system
		15.1.2 Microbial phosphate solubilization
		15.1.3 Mechanisms of P-solubilization
			15.1.3.1 Acid production theory
			15.1.3.2 Enzyme theory
		15.1.4 Factors affecting P-solubilization and colonization
			15.1.4.1 Carbon and N source
			15.1.4.2 Temperature and pH
	15.2 Research the selection of phosphate-solubilizing microbes
	15.3 Bioinoculants containing strains of P solubilizing microorganisms and biomaphos - an example of a successful case in  ...
	References
CHAPTER  16  - Fungal endophytes as biostimulants of secondary metabolism in plants: a sustainable agricultural practice fo ...
	16.1 Introduction
		16.1.1 Why do we need sustainable agriculture practice?
		16.1.2 What is biostimulant and how they are impacting the modern day agriculture?
		16.1.3 What is fungal endophyte and why they are important as biostimulant?
	16.2 Why do we need to study fungal-medicinal plant interaction to make secondary metabolites?
	16.3 Role of endophytic fungi in production of secondary metabolites; host-endophyte relationship
	16.4 Metabolic interactions of plant endophytes
	16.5 Different strategies to exploit fungal endophytes as biostimulants for production of commercially important plant-der ...
		16.5.1 Elicitation
		16.5.2 Co-culture method
	16.6 Secondary metabolic compounds produced by medicinal plants endophytic fungi in vitro
		16.6.1 Azadirachta indica A. juss
		16.6.2 Cajanus cajan (L.) huth
		16.6.3 Camptotheca acuminata decne
		16.6.4 Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don
		16.6.5 Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) briq
		16.6.6 Corylus avellana L
		16.6.7 Dysoxylum binectariferum Hook.f
		16.6.8 Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) vahl
		16.6.9 Gastrodia elata blume
		16.6.10 Ginkgo biloba L
		16.6.11 Huperzia serrata (Thunb. ex murray)
		16.6.12 Juniperus sp L
		16.6.13 Podophyllum hexandrum royle
		16.6.14 Rheum emodi wall. ex meissn
		16.6.15 Salvia sp. L
		16.6.16 Taxus sp. L
		16.6.17 Vitis vinifera L. cv. merlot
	16.7 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
CHAPTER  17 - Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria from the perspectives of tea plantations and diseases
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Tea cultivation in India
	17.3 Tea varieties
	17.4 Shade trees in tea plantations
	17.5 Pests and diseases of tea
	17.6 Tea rhizosphere
	17.7 Rhizospheric activity
	17.8 Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
	17.9 PGPR and prospective benefits to tea plants
	17.10 PGPR as biocontrol agents in tea cultivation
	17.11 Tea plantations and microbial colonization
	17.12 Conclusion
	References
CHAPTER  18 - Microbiome-based approaches to enhance soil health in arable land
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Conventional microbe-based approach for enhancement of soil health
	18.3 Limitations associated with conventional approaches
	18.4 Microbiome: a brief overview
	18.5 Approaches used to engineer the microbiome
	18.6 Impact of microbiome-based approaches on the health of plant and soil
	18.7 Future of microbiome-based approaches in enhancing soil health: integration of metagenomics and metabolomics approach ...
	18.8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgement
	References
CHAPTER19 - Deciphering microbial consortium from termite gut for biofertilizer consortium formulation
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Material and methods
		19.2.1 Surface sterilization of termites, removal of gut
		19.2.2 DNA extraction, sequencing and sequence analysis
		19.2.3 Metagenome sequence analyses
	19.3 Results and discussions
		19.3.1 Alpha diversity
		19.3.2 Rarefaction curve
		19.3.3 Taxonomic richness
	19.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
CHAPTER 20 - Revivification of rhizobacteria-promoting plant growth for sustainable agricultural development
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Rhizosphere soil
	20.3 Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
	20.4 PGPR in farming
	20.5 Bio-fertilization
	20.6 The PGPR biological control agents
	20.7 Mechanisms of direct
		20.7.1 Biological nitrogen fixation
		20.7.2 Mineral solubilization/mobilization
		20.7.3 PGPR is a regulator of plant development
		20.7.4 Indole-3-Acetic acid (IAA) or auxin
		20.7.5 Gibberellins and cytokinins
		20.7.6 The activity of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminize
		20.7.7 The production of siderophore
	20.8 Indirect mechanisms
		20.8.1 Antibiotics
		20.8.2 Lytic enzymes
		20.8.3 Organic volatile compounds
		20.8.4 Biosurfactants
		20.8.5 Biotic and abiotic stress tolerance
		20.8.6 Induced systemic resistance (ISR)
		20.8.7 PGPR in phytoremediation
	20.9 Sustainability of agriculture and future perspective
	20.10 Conclusions
	References
Index
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