Multimessenger Astronomy (Astronomers' Universe)

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
1: Optical Astronomy
	1.1	 The Instruments of Optical Astronomy
		1.1.1	 Telescopes
		1.1.2	 Spectrographs
		1.1.3	 Detectors
			1.1.3.1 Photographic Plates
			1.1.3.2 Photoelectric Detectors
			1.1.3.3 Charge Coupled Devices
	1.2	 Some Essential Results from Optical Astronomy
		1.2.1	 Photometric Measurements
			1.2.1.1 Stellar Magnitudes
		1.2.2	 The Importance of the Cepheid Variables
			1.2.2.1 The Hubble-Lemaître Parameter and the Expansion of the Universe
			1.2.2.2 The Hertzprung–Russell Diagram
			1.2.2.3 Two-Dimensional Photometry of Galaxies
		1.2.3	 Optical Spectroscopic Observations
			1.2.3.1 Abundances of the Chemical Elements
			1.2.3.2 Abundance Measurements in HII Regions
			1.2.3.3 Rotation Curves of Galaxies: Dark Matter
	Further Reading
2: Radioastronomy
	2.1	 The Beginnings of Radioastronomy
	2.2	 Radiotelescopes: Single Dishes and Interferometers
		2.2.1	 Early Interferometers and Their Results
	2.3	 Synchrotron Radiation
		2.3.1	 The Crab Nebula
	2.4	 Radio Galaxies
		2.4.1	 The Discovery of Quasars
		2.4.2	 The Discovery of Pulsars
		2.4.3	 Pulsars and General Relativity
	2.5	 CO and the Three Phases of the Interstellar Medium
		2.5.1	 Molecular Radioastronomy
	2.6	 The Cosmic Microwave Background
	2.7	 Very Long Baseline Interferometry
	2.8	 The Square Kilometre Array
	Further Reading
3: Infrared Astronomy
	3.1	 Pioneers of Infrared Astronomy
	3.2	 Why Astronomers Want to Use the Infrared
	3.3	 The Problem of Interstellar Dust
	3.4	 The Start of Modern Infrared Astronomy
	3.5	 Observational Platforms for Infrared Astronomy
		3.5.1	 Infrared Astronomy from Aircraft
		3.5.2	 Infrared Astronomy Satellites
			3.5.2.1 IRAS: The Pioneer
			3.5.2.2 ISO
			3.5.2.3 Spitzer
			3.5.2.4 The Herschel Space (Far Infrared) Observatory
			3.5.2.5 The James Webb Space Telescope
	Further Reading
4: Ultraviolet Astronomy
	4.1	 Why Study Astronomy in the Ultraviolet?
	4.2	 Ultraviolet from Rockets and Satellites
		4.2.1	 Early UV Observations from Rockets and Satellites
		4.2.2	 IUE
		4.2.3	 The Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE)
		4.2.4	 The Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX)
		4.2.5	 The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in the UV
	4.3	 Specific Studies and Results of UV Astronomy
		4.3.1	 The Sun
		4.3.2	 Comets, Planets and Exoplanets
		4.3.3	 Pre-main Sequence Stars and Cool Stars
		4.3.4	 Hot Stars
		4.3.5	 UV from Shocked Regions in the Interstellar Medium
		4.3.6	 The Interstellar Medium and the Cosmic Deuterium Abundance
		4.3.7	 Galaxies in the UV
		4.3.8	 Supernova 1987A
		4.3.9	 The Lyman-α Forest, Quasars, and the Reionisation of the Universe
	Further Reading
5: X-Ray Astronomy
	5.1	 First Steps in X-Ray Astronomy: Rockets, Balloons, and Early Satellites
	5.2	 X-Ray Detectors and Telescopes
		5.2.1	 Grazing Incidence Optics: Einstein and Rosat X-Ray Satellites
		5.2.2	 The Chandra X-Ray Observatory
		5.2.3	 XMM-Newton
	5.3	 What We Learn from X-Ray Astronomy
		5.3.1	 What Kinds of Objects Produce X-Rays
			5.3.1.1 Solar X-Rays
			5.3.1.2 X-Rays from the Local Interstellar Medium
			5.3.1.3 X-Rays from Stars
		5.3.2	 Hot Stars, Young Stars
		5.3.3	 X Ray Binaries
		5.3.4	 Pulsars and Supernova Remnants
		5.3.5	 X-Ray Emission from Galaxies
		5.3.6	 X-Ray Emission from Clusters of Galaxies
		5.3.7	 Spectr-RG Maps the Whole Sky in X-Rays
	Further Reading
6: Gamma Ray Astronomy from Space
	6.1	 Why Observe the Universe in Gamma-Rays?
	6.2	 What, Specifically, Can We Hope to Learn from Gamma-Ray Astronomy
	6.3	 A Brief Time-Line of Gamma Ray Observations from Space
	6.4	 Gamma-Ray Telescopes
	6.5	 What Gamma-Ray Astronomy Is Telling Us
		6.5.1	 The Gamma-Ray Sky
		6.5.2	 Gamma-Rays Tracing the Origin of Cosmic Rays: Supernova Remnants
		6.5.3	 Gamma-Rays from Pulsar Winds
		6.5.4	 Gamma-Ray Detection from Other Galaxies: Escape of Cosmic Rays into the Intergalactic Medium
		6.5.5	 The Fermi Bubbles
		6.5.6	 Gamma Ray Bursts
		6.5.7	 Dark Matter Particle Annihilation Searches
	Further Reading
7: Neutrino Astronomy
	7.1	 What Is a Neutrino?
	7.2	 Solar Neutrinos
		7.2.1	 The Total Output of Solar Neutrinos
		7.2.2	 Some Details About How Solar Neutrinos are Produced
		7.2.3	 Detection of Solar Neutrinos
		7.2.4	 The Solar Neutrino Mystery
		7.2.5	 Kamiokande
		7.2.6	 Superkamiokande
	7.3	 Neutrinos from Supernova 1987a
		7.3.1	 SNEWS, the Supernova Early Warning System
	7.4	 Neutrinos, Antineutrinos and the Asymmetry of the Universe
	7.5	 High Energy Neutrino Astronomy
	Further Reading
8: Gravitational Wave Astronomy
	8.1	 Gravitational Waves and Einstein
	8.2	 Indirect Evidence for Gravitational Waves: Pulsars in Binary Systems
	8.3	 Theorists give Reasons for the Detectability of Gravitational Waves
	8.4	 Experiments to Detect Gravitational Waves
		8.4.1	 Joseph Weber’s Experiments
		8.4.2	 Towards a Suitable Detector
		8.4.3	 The Michelson Interferometer
		8.4.4	 The LIGO Concept
		8.4.5	 Projects Which Tested the Use of Laser Interferometers
	8.5	 The LIGO Project: Conception and Implementation
		8.5.1	 Some Details of LIGO
			8.5.1.1 The Optical Beam Paths
			8.5.1.2 Stability of the Optics
			8.5.1.3 The Laser and the Optical Path
	8.6	 The First Detection of Gravitational Waves
		8.6.1	 The Observation
		8.6.2	 The Interpretation
	8.7	 The Stream of GW Detections Begins
		8.7.1	 GW170817 A Source with Over 4000 Messengers
	8.8	 The Future of Gravitational Wave Research
	8.9	 Stop Press
	Further Reading
		Books
9: Cosmic Rays? Cosmic Particles
	9.1	 The Discovery of Cosmic Rays
	9.2	 What Are Cosmic Rays?
		9.2.1	 Cosmic Ray Composition, and the Abundances of the Elements
	9.3	 When Cosmic Rays Played a Key Role in Particle Physics
		9.3.1	 The Discovery of the Positron
		9.3.2	 Cosmic Rays Lead to the Discovery of a Number of Subatomic Particles
	9.4	 The Energy Distribution of Cosmic Rays
	9.5	 Where Do Cosmic Rays Come From?
	9.6	 Cosmic Ray Telescopes and Observatories
		9.6.1	 Ground Based Telescopes
		9.6.2	 The Pierre Auger Observatory
	9.7	 Steerable Telescopes for High Energy Gamma-Rays
		9.7.1	 The MAGIC Telescope
		9.7.2	 The Cherenkov Telescope Array: Future Prospects
	Further Reading
10: Cosmology and Particle Physics
	10.1	 Nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang
	10.2	 The Baryon Density of the Universe and Dark Matter Candidates
	10.3	 Neutrino Flavours
	10.4	 The Cosmic Microwave Background and Precision Cosmology
	10.5	 How the Theorists Explain the CMB Anisotropies
	10.6	 The Big Bang and Particle Antiparticle Asymmetry
	10.7	 Dark Matter Searches
	Further Reading
11: Hands-on Astronomy: Meteorites and Cosmochemistry
	11.1	 The Use of Material from Outside the Earth for Astronomy
	11.2	 Meteorites and What They Can Tell Us
		11.2.1	 Types of Meteorites
		11.2.2	 Pre-solar Grains
	11.3	 Specific Samples of Extraterrestrial Material
		11.3.1	 Large Meteorites
			11.3.1.1 The Murchison Meteorite
			11.3.1.2 The Allende Meteorite
	11.4	 Material from Comets
		11.4.1	 Material Brought to Earth from a Comet: Comet Wild 2
		11.4.2	 Other Missions to Comets
	11.5	 Missions to Retrieve Material from Asteroids
		11.5.1	 Material Brought to Earth from an Asteroid Itokawa
		11.5.2	 Hayabusa 2: Asteroid Ryugu
		11.5.3	 OSIRIS-REx: Asteroid Bennu
	11.6	 Rocks from the Moon
		11.6.1	 Are the Tektites of Lunar Origin?
	11.7	 The Genesis Mission: Oxygen Isotopes in the Solar Wind
	11.8	 Martian Meteorites on Earth
	11.9	 In Situ Measurements of Martian Composition
	Further Reading
12: Comparing the Messages
	12.1	 Jupiter
	12.2	 The Sun
	12.3	 The Milky Way
	12.4	 Supernova Remnants
		12.4.1	 The Crab Nebula
		12.4.2	 The Veil Nebula
		12.4.3	 Cassiopeia A
	12.5	 The Andromeda Galaxy
	12.6	 Epilogue
Appendix: Astronomical Distance and Energy Units
	Astronomical Distances
	Energies of Particles and Radiation at X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Wavelengths
Index of Objects
Name Index 
Subject Index