Measurement and Analysis of Human Locomotion

Preface
Acknowledgement
Contents
Contributors
1 Introduction
	1.1 Biomedical Engineering and Biomechanics in Studies of Locomotion
	1.2 Overview of the Book
	References
2 History of the Study of Human Locomotion and Elements of Current Research Methodology
	2.1 Studying Human Locomotion: A Short Historical Review
	2.2 Human Locomotion Study: Elements of Current Research Methodology
	References
3 On Evolution and Development of Human Gait
	3.1 Human Gait Modalities—Walking and Running Pattern in Modern Humans
	3.2 Musculoskeletal Anatomy of Modern Humans and Extant Apes
	3.3 Bipedal Walking in Modern Humans and Extant Apes
	3.4 The Advantages and Negative Aspects of Bipedalism
	3.5 Timepoints in the Human Evolution Related to the Development of Bipedalism
	3.6 Theories Behind the Evolution of Bipedalism
	3.7 Development of Gait in Toddlers (The Development of Mature Gait)
	3.8 Conclusion
	References
4 From the Archives of Zagreb School of Biomechanics: Measuring Biomechanical Properties of Lumbosacral Joint Specimens
	4.1 On Research of Spinal Biomechanics at the University of Zagreb
	4.2 Lumbar Spine Biomechanical Analysis on Intact and Operated Human Model
		4.2.1 Introduction
		4.2.2 Materials and Methods
		4.2.3 Results and Discussion
		4.2.4 Conclusion
	References
5 On Measuring Kinematics and Kinetics of Human Locomotion
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Measuring Kinematics of Human Locomotion
		5.2.1 Optoelectronic Methods
		5.2.2 On Kinematic Data Processing
		5.2.3 Wearable Technologies
	5.3 Measuring Kinetics of Human Locomotion
		5.3.1 Force Measuring Platform
		5.3.2 Pedobarography
	5.4 Conclusion
	References
6 The Principles of 3D Photogrammetry Systems Used in Human Motion Capture and Postural Assessment
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Camera Modeling
	6.3 Camera Calibration
		6.3.1 Computation of a Camera Projective matrix—Minimizing the Algebraic Error
		6.3.2 Computation of a Camera Projective Matrix—Minimizing the Geometric Error
		6.3.3 Calibration Tools
	6.4 The 3D Reconstruction
		6.4.1 Epipolar Geometry
	6.5 The Usage of 3D Kinematic System
		6.5.1 Introduction of Markers
		6.5.2 Measurement Protocols
		6.5.3 Example of Typical Workflow
		6.5.4 Going Beyond Kinematic Data
	6.6 Further Reading
	6.7 Conclusion
	References
7 On Standardization of Pedobarographic Measurement Protocols
	7.1 On Pedobarography: Relation to Foot Biomechanics, Types of Devices’ Design, and Standardization Problems
	7.2 On Pedobarographic Sensor Technology and Devices’ Technical Assessment
	7.3 Pressure Measurement Parameters and Protocols
	References
8 Pedobarography Combined with Computerized Shoe Insole Design and Manufacture: Clinical Applications in Orthopedics and in Sports Medicine
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Foot
	8.3 Orthopedic Insoles
	8.4 Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) Insoles
	8.5 Orthopedic Insoles and Most Common Diagnoses in Orthopedics and in Sports Medicine
	References
9 Kinesiological Electromyography
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Origins, Formation, and Properties of Myoelectric Signals
	9.3 Surface Electromyography: Measurement Technique, Signal Processing and Interpretation
		9.3.1 Measurement Technique
		9.3.2 Myoelectric Signal Processing
		9.3.3 Interpretation of Surface EMG Signals
		9.3.4 Conclusion
	References
10 Gait Analysis
	10.1 Establishment of Gait Analysis as a Clinical Vehicle
	10.2 Gait Analysis—Components
		10.2.1 Gait Cycle
		10.2.2 Standard Technical Requirements for Gait Analysis
	10.3 Examples
	10.4 On the Interpretation of Results
	10.5 Additional Instrumentation
	10.6 Introduction of Subject-Specific Neuro-Musculo-Skeletal Modeling
	10.7 Clinical Benefit of Gait Analysis
	10.8 Non-linear Analysis
	10.9 Pervasive Gait Analysis Using Wearable Sensors
	10.10 Evolving Methodology of Clinical Gait Analysis
	References
11 Concerns of a Modern Orthopedic Traumatologist
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Hip
	11.3 Knee
	11.4 Ankle
	11.5 Conclusion
	References
12 Studying Sportive Movement Patterns: Selected Examples
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Reductionist Sports
	12.3 Constructivist Sports
	12.4 Examples: Reductive and Constructive
	12.5 Discussion
	12.6 Instead of Conclusion
	References
Appendices
The following five articles are reprinted here by kind permission of Elsevier:
Appendix A ISB Recommendations for Standardization in the Reporting of Kinematic Data
References
Editorial Comment
Appendix B ISB Recommendation on Definitions of Joint Coordinate System of Various Joints for the Reporting of Human Joint Motion—Part I: Ankle, Hip, and Spine
Introduction
Overview of JCS
JCS for the Ankle Joint Complex
Introduction
Terminology
Joint Definition
Anatomical Landmarks Used in This Proposal
Definition of Standard Anatomical Planes of the Tibia/fibula (Fig. B1)
Definition of the Neutral Configuration of the Ankle Joint Complex
Tibia/Fibula Coordinate System—XYZ (Fig. B1)
Calcaneus Coordinate System—xyz (Fig. B1)
JCS and Motion for the Ankle Complex (Fig. B2)
JCS for the Hip Joint
Introduction
Definitions
Anatomical Landmarks Used
Definition of Hip Center of Rotation
Pelvic Coordinate System—XYZ (Fig. B3)
Femoral Coordinate System—xyz (Fig. B3)
JCS and Motion for the Right (or Left) Hip Joint
JCS for the Spine
Introduction
Vertebral Coordinate System—XYZ (Proximal) and xyz (Distal) (Fig. B4)
JCS and Motion for the Spine (Fig. B4)
References
Appendix C ISB Recommendation on Definitions of Joint Coordinate Systems of Various Joints for the Reporting of Human Joint Motion—Part II: Shoulder, Elbow, Wrist and Hand
Introduction
JCS for the Shoulder
Introduction
Terminology
Anatomical Landmarks Used in This Proposal (Fig. C1)
Body Segment Coordinate Systems
Thorax Coordinate System—XtYtZt (See Figs. C1 and C2)
Clavicle Coordinate System—XcYcZc (See Figs. C1 and C3)
Scapula Coordinate System—XsYsZs (See Figs. C1 and C4)
Humerus (1st Option) Coordinate System— Xh1Yh1Zh1 (See 1 and 5; See also Notes 1 and 2)
Humerus (2nd Option) Coordinate System— Xh2Yh2Zh2
Forearm Coordinate System—XfYfZf (See Figs. C1 and C6)
JCS and Motion for the Shoulder Complex
JCS and Motions of the Thorax Relative to the Global Coordinate System (Z–X–Y Order, Fig. C2)
JCS and Motion for the SC Joint (Clavicle Relative to the Thorax, Y–X–Z Order, Fig. C3)
JCS and Motion for the AC Joint (Scapula Relative to the Clavicle, Y–X–Z Order, Fig. C4)
JCS and Motion for the GH Joint (Humerus Relative to the Scapula, Y–X–Y Order, Fig. C5)
JCS and Motion for the Clavicle Relative to the Thorax
JCS and Motion for the Scapula Relative to the Thorax (Y–X–Z Order)
JCS and Motion for the Humerus Relative to the Thorax (Y–X–Y Order) (Fig. C7)
JCS for the Elbow
Introduction
Terminology
Body Segment Coordinate Systems
Humerus Coordinate system—Xh1Yh1Zh1 (1st Option) or Xh2Yh2Zh2 (2nd Option)
Forearm Coordinate System—XfYfZf
Ulnar Coordinate System—XuYuZu (Defined at Elbow Flexed 90° in the Sagittal Plane)
Radius Coordinate System—XrYrZr (Defined with Forearm in the Neutral Position and Elbow Flexed 90° in the Sagittal Plane)
JCS and Motion for the Elbow Joints
JCS and Motion for the Elbow Joint (Forearm Relative to the Humerus, Z–X–Y Order)
JCS and Motion of the Humeroulnar Joint (Ulna Relative to the Humerus, Z–X–Y Order)
JCS and Motion for the Radioulnar Joint (Radius Relative to the Ulna, X–Z–Y Order)
JCS for the Hand and Wrist
Introduction
Terminology
Anatomical Landmarks Used (See Figs. C8, C9 and C10)
Standard Wrist Positions
Body Segment Coordinate Systems
Radius Coordinate System—XrYrZr
Ulna Coordinate System—XuYuZu
Carpal Bones Coordinate System—XcYcZc
Metacarpals Coordinate System—XmYmZm
Phalanges Coordinate System—XpYpZp
JCS and Motion for the Hand and Wrist
JCS and Motion for the Interphalangeal, Metacarpophalangeal, Intercarpal, Radiocarpal, and Carpometacarpal Joints
JCS and Motion for the Radioulnar Joint
References
Appendix D ISB Recommendations on the Reporting of Intersegmental Forces and Moments During Human Motion Analysis
Introduction
Anthropometric Model
Summary and Recommendations
Joint Centers
Summary and Recommendations
Signal Processing
Summary and Recommendations
Method of Calculation
Summary and Recommendations
Coordinate System
Summary and Recommendations
Internal or External Perspective
Summary and Recommendations
Normalization
Summary and Recommendations
Conclusions
Declaration of Competing Interest
Appendix A. Example Checklist for the Reporting of Intersegmental Forces and Moments
References
Appendix E Standards for Reporting EMG Data
Index