Landscapes and Landforms of Eastern Canada (World Geomorphological Landscapes)

Series Editor Preface
Dedication
Preface for Landscapes and Landforms of Eastern Canada
	References
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Introduction to the Geomorphological Landscapes of Eastern Canada
1 Eastern Canadian Landscapes as a Function of Structure, Relief and Process
	Abstract
	1.1 A Word About Landscape
	1.2 Structure, Relief and Process
		1.2.1 The Geological Provinces of Eastern Canada
			1.2.1.1 The Canadian Shield
			1.2.1.2 Platforms
			1.2.1.3 Orogenic Belts
			1.2.1.4 Continental Shelves
	1.3 Physiography
		1.3.1 Canadian Shield
		1.3.2 Lowlands
			1.3.2.1 Arctic Lowlands
			1.3.2.2 Hudson Bay Lowland
			1.3.2.3 Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands
		1.3.3 Mountains
			1.3.3.1 Innuitia
			1.3.3.2 Appalachia
		1.3.4 Plains
			1.3.4.1 Arctic Coastal Plain
			1.3.4.2 Atlantic Maritime Plain
	1.4 Permafrost and Vegetation Cover as Geomorphic Drivers
		1.4.1 Permafrost
			1.4.1.1 Continuous Permafrost
			1.4.1.2 Extensive Discontinuous Permafrost
			1.4.1.3 Sporadic Discontinuous Permafrost
			1.4.1.4 Isolated Patches of Permafrost
		1.4.2 Ecozones
			1.4.2.1 Arctic Cordillera, Northern Arctic and Southern Arctic Ecozones
			1.4.2.2 Taiga Shield, Boreal Shield and Hudson Plains Ecozones
			1.4.2.3 Mixed Wood Plains and Atlantic Maritime Ecozones
		1.4.3 The Significance of Arctic Treeline and Alpine Timberline
			1.4.3.1 Arctic Treeline
			1.4.3.2 Alpine Timberline
	1.5 Special Landscapes
		1.5.1 Impact Crater Landscapes in Eastern Canada
		1.5.2 Karst Landscapes of Eastern Canada
	1.6 Geomorphological Landscapes of Eastern Canada
		1.6.1 Permafrost-Dominated Shield (Region 1)
			1.6.1.1 Keewatin (1a)
			1.6.1.2 Nunavik (1b)
		1.6.2 Forested Shield: Low to Moderate Relief (Region 2)
			1.6.2.1 George Plateau (2a)
			1.6.2.2 Larch and Lake Plateaus (2b)
			1.6.2.3 Abitibi and Severn Uplands (2c)
		1.6.3 Forested Shield: Moderate—High Relief (Region 3)
			1.6.3.1 Laurentian Highlands (3a)
			1.6.3.2 Hamilton Plateau and Upland (3b)
			1.6.3.3 Mealy Mountains (3c)
		1.6.4 Shield: High Relief (Region 4)
			1.6.4.1 Ellesmere and Devon Islands (4a)
			1.6.4.2 Baffin Island (Qikiqtaaluk) Mountains (4b)
			1.6.4.3 Uplands of Baffin and Nunavik (4c)
			1.6.4.4 The Torngats (4d)
		1.6.5 Arctic Lowlands (5)
			1.6.5.1 Foxe Plain (5a)
			1.6.5.2 Lancaster Plateau and Boothia Plain (5b)
			1.6.5.3 Victoria Lowland (5c)
		1.6.6 Permafrost-Dominated Hudson Bay Lowland (Region 9)
		1.6.7 Forested Hudson Bay Lowland (Region 10)
		1.6.8 Great Lakes—St. Lawrence Lowlands (Region 11)
			1.6.8.1 The Gulf of St. Lawrence (11a)
			1.6.8.2 St. Lawrence—Ottawa Valley (11b)
			1.6.8.3 Great Lakes Lowland (11c)
		1.6.9 Innuitia: High Relief (Region 12)
			1.6.9.1 Innuitian Mountains (12a)
			1.6.9.2 Eureka Uplands (12b)
		1.6.10 Innuitia: Low to Moderate Relief (Region 13)
			1.6.10.1 Parry Plateau (13a)
			1.6.10.2 Sverdrup Lowland (13b)
		1.6.11 Appalachia-Acadia (Region 19)
			1.6.11.1 Newfoundland (19a)
			1.6.11.2 Québec (19b)
			1.6.11.3 New Brunswick and Nova Scotia (19c)
		1.6.12 Arctic Coastal Plain (Region 20)
		1.6.13 Atlantic Maritime Plain (Region 22)
	1.7 Conclusion
	References
2 Quaternary Glacial, Glacimarine and Glacilacustrine History
	Abstract
	2.1 Introduction to Glacial History
	2.2 Pre-MIS 2 Events
	2.3 MIS 2 Glaciation
		2.3.1 Laurentide Ice Sheet Complex (LISC)
			2.3.1.1 Labrador—Western Québec
			2.3.1.2 Kivalliq and Western Nunavut
			2.3.1.3 Foxe Basin
		2.3.2 Innuitian Ice Sheet Complex (IISC)
		2.3.3 Atlantic Canada
		2.3.4 Alpine Glaciation
	2.4 Glacimarine Geomorphology
		2.4.1 Atlantic Canada
		2.4.2 Champlain Sea
		2.4.3 Tyrrell Sea
	2.5 Glacilacustrine Geomorphology
		2.5.1 Great Lakes
			2.5.1.1 Lake Erie Basin
			2.5.1.2 Lake Huron Basin
			2.5.1.3 Lake Ontario Basin
			2.5.1.4 Niagara Falls
			2.5.1.5 Lake Superior Basin
		2.5.2 Lake Barlow-Ojibway
	2.6 Conclusion
	References
3 Holocene Geomorphic Processes in Eastern Canada
	Abstract
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Implications of Ice Sheet Recession
		3.2.1 Paraglacial Landscapes
		3.2.2 Glaci-Isostasy and Eustasy
	3.3 Secondary Paraglacial Sediments and Processes
		3.3.1 Marine, Lacustrine and Fluvial Sediments, and Processes
		3.3.2 Littoral Processes: The Case of Paraglacial Coasts
			3.3.2.1 Coasts Defined by Direct Release of Primary Glacigenic Sediment into the Nearshore Sediment System
			3.3.2.2 Coasts with Direct Influx of Secondary Fluvial and Mass Wasted Paraglacial Sediment
			3.3.2.3 Composite Paraglacial Coastlines Have also Been Identified
		3.3.3 Mass Wasting
		3.3.4 Aeolian
		3.3.5 General
	3.4 Periglacial Landscapes
		3.4.1 The Role of Permafrost
		3.4.2 Permafrost and Periglacial Processes
		3.4.3 Frost Action Processes
		3.4.4 Thermokarst
		3.4.5 Alpine Landscapes: Glaciers and Permafrost
			3.4.5.1 Torngat Mountains
			3.4.5.2 North Labrador Plateau
			3.4.5.3 Mealy Mountains
			3.4.5.4 Western and Southwestern Newfoundland
			3.4.5.5 Chic-Choc Mountains
	3.5 Contemporary Hydroclimate and Wetlands
		3.5.1 Hydroclimate
			3.5.1.1 Continental Climates
			3.5.1.2 The Boreal Climate
			3.5.1.3 The Arctic Climate
		3.5.2 Wetlands of Eastern Canada
			3.5.2.1 Classifications of Wetlands
			3.5.2.2 Eastern Temperate
			3.5.2.3 Atlantic
			3.5.2.4 Boreal
			3.5.2.5 Arctic and Subarctic
		3.5.3 Rivers
			3.5.3.1 Rivers
			3.5.3.2 Large River Channels
			3.5.3.3 Fluvial Regions in the Context of Hydroclimate Change
			3.5.3.4 The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands
			3.5.3.5 Appalachia
			3.5.3.6 The Southern Shield and Southern Boreal Shield
			3.5.3.7 Northern Regions
	3.6 Hydroclimate Change and Coastal Responses
		3.6.1 Barrier Island Coastlines
		3.6.2 Wave-Dominated Coasts
		3.6.3 Tide-Dominated Coasts
		3.6.4 Sensitivity to Hydroclimate Change
			3.6.4.1 Placentia, Newfoundland
			3.6.4.2 Eastern Shore, Nova Scotia
			3.6.4.3 Head of the Bay of Fundy
	3.7 Regional Hazards
		3.7.1 Arctic
		3.7.2 Québec and Ontario
		3.7.3 Atlantic Canada
	3.8 The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin
		3.8.1 The Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway
		3.8.2 The Riverine Section
		3.8.3 The Estuary
		3.8.4 The Gulf
		3.8.5 Environmental Hazards
	3.9 Conclusion
	References
Case Studies
4 Glacial Landform Assemblages of Mainland Nunavut, West of Hudson Bay and Their Palaeoglaciological Significance
	Abstract
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Glacial Landform Assemblages
		4.2.1 Zone 1
		4.2.2 Zone 2
		4.2.3 Zone 3
		4.2.4 Zone 4
		4.2.5 Major Moraine Ridges
		4.2.6 Features Related to Glacial Lakes and Marine Transgression
	4.3 Implications for Laurentide Ice Sheet Dynamics
		4.3.1 The Keewatin Ice Divide (KID)
		4.3.2 Subglacial Meltwater Drainage
		4.3.3 Ice Streaming
	4.4 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
5 Deglacial to Paraglacial History of the Lake Saint-Jean Lowlands: A Geomorphological Perspective
	Abstract
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Lake Saint-Jean Lowlands
		5.2.1 Late Quaternary History
		5.2.2 Stratigraphic Organization
	5.3 Geomorphological Markers
		5.3.1 Deglacial Period
			5.3.1.1 Mega-Scale Glacial Lineations (MSGLs)
			5.3.1.2 Eskers
			5.3.1.3 Valleys
		5.3.2 Paraglacial Period
			5.3.2.1 Aeolian Dunes
			5.3.2.2 Beach Ridges
			5.3.2.3 Spits
			5.3.2.4 Wave-Cut Terraces
			5.3.2.5 Hyperpycnal System
			5.3.2.6 Sediment Drifts
	5.4 Recent Geomorphological Processes
	5.5 Conclusion
	References
6 Northwestern Ontario: The Thunder Bay Region
	Abstract
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Bedrock Geology
	6.3 Pleistocene Glaciation
	6.4 The Last Glacial Events in the Thunder Bay Region
	6.5 Landforms of Particular Interest
		6.5.1 The Ouimet Canyon
		6.5.2 The East Arrow Delta
		6.5.3 The Lappe Delta and the Mackenzie Interlobate Moraine
		6.5.4 The Murillo Drumlin Field
		6.5.5 The Pass Lake Bay-Mouth Bar
	References
7 Labrador and the Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland: Foreshore and Flanking Geomorphology
	Abstract
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Nunatsiavut and Natuashish
		7.2.1 Torngat Mountains
		7.2.2 Vegetation
		7.2.3 Coastal Features and Communities
		7.2.4 Sea Ice and Icebergs
	7.3 Southern Labrador Coast: Southern Nunatsiavut and NunatuKavut
		7.3.1 Lake Melville Estuary
		7.3.2 Akami-UapishkU—KakKasuak—Mealy Mountains National Park Reserve
		7.3.3 Southern Labrador Coast
		7.3.4 Vegetation
	7.4 Straits Region (Strait of Belle Isle)
		7.4.1 Labrador Shoreline
			7.4.1.1 Red Bay National Historic and UNESCO World Heritage Site
			7.4.1.2 Pinware
		7.4.2 Northern Peninsula
		7.4.3 L’Anse-aux-Meadows
		7.4.4 Karst Topography
		7.4.5 Port-Au-Choix
	7.5 Conclusion
	References
8 Landscapes and Landforms of the Hudson Bay Lowlands
	Abstract
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Wetland Landscape Ecotones
	8.3 Present Conditions Contributing to HBL Wetland Landscapes
		8.3.1 Climate
		8.3.2 Permafrost
	8.4 Geologic Conditions Contributing to Wetland Landscapes
		8.4.1 Bedrock Geology
		8.4.2 Glacial Geology
		8.4.3 Postglacial Lakes and High Level Seas
	8.5 Bedrock and Glacial Landforms and Landscapes of the Lowlands
	8.6 Wetland Landforms and Landscapes
		8.6.1 Bogs
			8.6.1.1 Open, Polygonized Peat Plateaus
			8.6.1.2 Forested Peat Plateaus
			8.6.1.3 Coalesced Peat Plateaus
		8.6.2 Fens
			8.6.2.1 Horizontal Fens
			8.6.2.2 String Fens
			8.6.2.3 Palsa Fens
		8.6.3 Peat/Mineral Soil Complexes
		8.6.4 Swamps
		8.6.5 Marsh
		8.6.6 Tidal Flats
		8.6.7 Open Lakes and Ponds
	8.7 Ground Ice in Peatlands
	8.8 Peatland Evolution
	8.9 Conclusion: The Future Landscape and Wetland Sensitivity
	References
9 Anticosti Island: Geomorphological Context of a Unique Karst Area
	Abstract
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Historical Sketch
		9.1.2 The Gulf of St. Lawrence Lowlands
	9.2 Climate, Hydrography and Vegetation of Anticosti Island
		9.2.1 Climate
		9.2.2 Hydrography
		9.2.3 Vegetation
	9.3 Physiography
	9.4 Surface Materials
		9.4.1 Studies
		9.4.2 Description
	9.5 Geology of Anticosti
		9.5.1 History of Studies
		9.5.2 Limestone Sequence
		9.5.3 Structural Features
	9.6 Karst
		9.6.1 History of Studies
		9.6.2 Karst Features
		9.6.3 Upper Salmon River Karst
	9.7 Conclusion
	References
10 Deltaic Complexes of the Québec North Shore
	Abstract
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Setting
		10.2.1 Geographic Setting
		10.2.2 Deglaciation and RSL History
	10.3 Deltaic Complexes
		10.3.1 Subaqueous Ice-Contact Fans and Ice-Contact Deltas
		10.3.2 Ice-Distal Glacifluvial Delta
		10.3.3 Submarine Channels
		10.3.4 Coastal Suites and Meandering Channel Belts
	10.4 Recent Sedimentary Processes on the Shelf and Through Submarine Channels and Canyons
	10.5 Conclusions
	References
11 Geomorphology of the Great Lakes Lowlands of Eastern Canada
	Abstract
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Bedrock
	11.3 Glacial Landforms and History
	11.4 Coastal Geomorphology in Southern Ontario
		11.4.1 Lake Erie
		11.4.2 Lake Ontario
		11.4.3 Lake Huron (South)
	11.5 Fluvial
	11.6 Human Influences in the Lower Great Lakes
	11.7 Conclusion
	References
12 Karst Geomorphology of the Saugeen-Bruce Peninsula, Ontario
	Abstract
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Study Area
		12.1.2 Purpose
		12.1.3 Previous Work
	12.2 Setting
		12.2.1 Physiography
		12.2.2 Bedrock Geology
		12.2.3 Climate
	12.3 Karst Features and Processes
	12.4 Karst Groundwater Setting
	12.5 Karst Geomorphology
		12.5.1 Pavements
		12.5.2 Fluvïkarst
			12.5.2.1 Colpoy Creek
			12.5.2.2 Dyers Creek
			12.5.2.3 Gillies Lake
			12.5.2.4 Horse Lake
			12.5.2.5 The St. Edmunds Karst
		12.5.3 Sub-glacial Meltwater Injection
		12.5.4 Palaeokarst
			12.5.4.1 Judges Creek
			12.5.4.2 Root Cave
			12.5.4.3 Simpson’s Gully
	12.6 Conclusion
	References
13 Ice Masses of the Eastern Canadian Arctic Archipelago
	Abstract
	13.1 Physical Geography of Ice Masses in the Canadian Arctic
	13.2 Ice Flow of the Eastern CAA
		13.2.1 Spatial Pattern of Ice Flow in the Eastern CAA
		13.2.2 Temporal Variability in Ice Flow
		13.2.3 Dynamic Discharge: Mass Loss via Ice Flow
	13.3 Glacier Mass Balance Within the CAA and Recent Trends
	13.4 Ice Shelves and Ice Islands
		13.4.1 Definition and Origin of Arctic Ice Shelves
		13.4.2 Physical Structure of Arctic Ice Shelves
		13.4.3 Ice Islands
		13.4.4 Recent Changes of the Northern Ellesmere Ice Shelves
	13.5 Conclusions
	References
14 Melville, Bathurst, and Cornwallis Islands: Low to Moderate Relief Innuitia
	Abstract
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Setting
		14.2.1 Climate and Vegetation
		14.2.2 Physiography
		14.2.3 Glaciation and Sea Level History
	14.3 Permafrost and Periglacial Landforms
		14.3.1 Thermokarst Processes
	14.4 Fluvial Processes and Landforms
	14.5 Aeolian Processes and Landforms
	14.6 Lake and Coastal Processes and Landforms
	14.7 Conclusion
	References
15 The Avalon of Newfoundland: Geomorphology, People and Landscape
	Abstract
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Bedrock Influences
	15.3 Quaternary Glacial Geomorphology
		15.3.1 Glaciated Barrens
		15.3.2 Diamictons, Striations and Landforms
		15.3.3 Rögens and Hummocks
	15.4 Fens and Bogs
	15.5 Cascades
	15.6 Coastal Geomorphology
		15.6.1 Sea Level History
		15.6.2 Coastal Regime
			15.6.2.1 Middle Cove and Outer Cove
			15.6.2.2 Chapel Cove
			15.6.2.3 Point Lance
			15.6.2.4 Bedrock Shorelines
	15.7 Northeast Avalon—Urban and Suburban
	15.8 Conclusion
	References
16 Large-Scale Rock Slope Deformation from the Tablelands and Lookout Hills of Western Newfoundland, Canada
	Abstract
	16.1 Introduction
		16.1.1 Terminology
	16.2 Geological Setting
	16.3 Methods
	16.4 Results
		16.4.1 Lookout Hills GSDF
		16.4.2 GSDF in the Tablelands
			16.4.2.1 GSDF Site 2: Shoal Brook
			16.4.2.2 GSDF Sites 3, 4, 5: Sandy Top, G4 and Miners Point
	16.5 Discussion
	16.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
17 Quaternary Heritage and Landscape in the Témiscouata–Madawaska Valley, Eastern Québec
	Abstract
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Study Area
		17.2.1 Topography
		17.2.2 Geology
		17.2.3 Climate and Vegetation
	17.3 Glacial History
		17.3.1 Glacial Expansion and Erosion
		17.3.2 The St. Lawrence Ice Stream: Calving and Notre-Dame Ice Cap
		17.3.3 Notre-Dame Ice Cap: Lejeune Ice Cap and Pohénégamook Ice Cap
	17.4 Quaternary Heritage and Landscape in Bas-Saint-Laurent
		17.4.1 Luceville and Neigette Ice-Front Moraines
		17.4.2 St. Antonin and St-Jean-Port-Joli Ice-Front Moraines
		17.4.3 Glacial Lake Madawaska Complex
		17.4.4 The Trois-Pistoles Delta
	17.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
18 Atlantic Canada’s Tidal Coastlines: Geomorphology and Multiple Resources
	Abstract
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Fundy: Macrotidal and Hypertidal Geomorphology
	18.3 Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence: Mesotidal Geomorphology
	18.4 Newfoundland and Labrador: Areas of Mesotidal Ice-Influenced Geomorphology
	18.5 Bras d’Or: Brackish Microtidal Embayment
	18.6 Ecological and Socio-economic Resources: Geomorphic Aspects
		18.6.1 Subtidal and Intertidal Organisms
		18.6.2 Agricultural Dykes
		18.6.3 Tidal Energy
		18.6.4 Tourism
	18.7 Conclusion
	References
19 Landforms and Landscapes of the Magdalen Islands: The Role of Geology and Climate
	Abstract
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Study Area
		19.2.1 Geology and Landscapes
		19.2.2 Climate and Vegetation
	19.3 Glaciation and Sea-Level History
		19.3.1 Glaciation
		19.3.2 Sea-Level History
	19.4 Periglacial Landforms
		19.4.1 Permafrost Features
		19.4.2 Cryopediments
		19.4.3 Dry Valleys
	19.5 The Coastal Landscape
		19.5.1 Wave Regime, Tides, Currents, and Sea Ice
		19.5.2 Cliffs and Beach Environments
		19.5.3 Coastal Erosion and Submergence
	19.6 Conclusions
	References
20 The Seafloor of Southeastern Canada
	Abstract
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 The Continental Shelf
		20.2.1 Fjords: The Result of Glacial Erosion
		20.2.2 Submarine Moraines Deposited During Glacial Retreat
		20.2.3 End Moraine Complexes
		20.2.4 De Geer Moraines
		20.2.5 Modern Sediment Transport by Tides and Waves
	20.3 The Deep-Water Margin
		20.3.1 From Continental Shelf to Abyssal Plain: Submarine Canyons and Fans
			20.3.1.1 Distribution of Submarine Canyons and Channels
			20.3.1.2 Submarine Fans, Lower Continental Slope and Abyssal Plains
			20.3.1.3 Small Shelf Canyons and Channels: Analogues to the Deep-Water
		20.3.2 Submarine Slope Instabilities: Landslides
		20.3.3 Deep-Water Bottom Currents and Contourite Drifts
	20.4 Conclusions
	References
Anthropocene Landscapes
21 Human-Modified Landscapes
	Abstract
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Agriculture
		21.2.1 Drainage of Wetlands
		21.2.2 Altered Erosion and Sedimentation
		21.2.3 Aeolian Dunes
		21.2.4 Forest Clearance
	21.3 Forestry
	21.4 Mining and Quarrying
	21.5 Dam Construction and Hydroelectric Development
	21.6 Urban Environments
	21.7 Tourism
	21.8 Coastal Environments
	21.9 Transportation
	21.10 Northern Environments
	21.11 Conclusion
	References
22 Glacitectonic Caves in the St. Lawrence Lowlands of Québec
	Abstract
	22.1 A New Geomorphological Object
	22.2 Glacitectonic Cave Hypothesis Confirmed
	22.3 Favorable Ice Movements
	22.4 St-Léonard Cave: A Surprising Story
	22.5 Beauport Caves: When a River Gets Involved
	22.6 Glacitectonic Caves: A Special Case Worthy of Study
	Acknowledgements
	References
23 Natural and Human Impacted Landscapes of the Sudbury Mining Region
	Abstract
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Geology
	23.3 Physiography
	23.4 Quaternary History
	23.5 Glacial Geomorphology
		23.5.1 Glacial Erosional Features
		23.5.2 Glacial Depositional Features
		23.5.3 Glacilacustrine and Outwash Features
			23.5.3.1 The Airport Glacifluvial System
	23.6 Post-glacial and Recent Drainage
	23.7 Human Impact on Geomorphic Processes
	23.8 Conclusions
	References
24 Do Landscapes Listen? Wemindji Eeyou Knowledge, Adaptation and Agency in the Context of Coastal Landscape Change
	Abstract
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Wemindji Cree Landscape Connections
		24.2.1 Cree Place Names
	24.3 Wemindji Eeyou Response to Landscape Change
		24.3.1 Construction of Dykes
		24.3.2 Cutting of Tuuhiikaan
	24.4 Eeyou Hunting Territories
		24.4.1 Traditional Eeyou Hunting Law
		24.4.2 Eeyou Stewardship
		24.4.3 Spiritual Connection with the Land
	24.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
25 Protecting Geodiversity in Eastern Canada
	Abstract
	25.1 Introduction to Protected Areas
	25.2 World Cultural and Natural Heritage Sites in Eastern Canada
		25.2.1 Criteria
		25.2.2 Geodiversity Sites
			25.2.2.1 Mistaken Point Natural World Heritage Site, Newfoundland
			25.2.2.2 Joggins Fossil Cliffs World Heritage Site, Nova Scotia
			25.2.2.3 Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland
			25.2.2.4 Miguasha Natural World Heritage Site
		25.2.3 Cultural-Historical Sites
			25.2.3.1 Pimachiowin Aki World Heritage Site, Manitoba and Ontario
			25.2.3.2 L’Anse Aux Meadows World Heritage Site, Newfoundland
			25.2.3.3 Historic District of Québec City World Heritage Site, Québec
			25.2.3.4 Red Bay Basque Whaling Station World Heritage Site, Labrador
			25.2.3.5 Landscape of Grand-Pré World Heritage Site, Nova Scotia
			25.2.3.6 Old Town Lunenburg World Heritage Site, Nova Scotia
			25.2.3.7 Rideau Canal World Heritage Site, Ontario/Québec
	25.3 Co-managed Parks and Geoparks
		25.3.1 Participation by Indigenous Peoples
			25.3.1.1 Parc National Kuururjuaq
			25.3.1.2 Parc National Ulittaniujalik
		25.3.2 Geoparks: The Role of Education
			25.3.2.1 Stonehammer Geopark, New Brunswick
			25.3.2.2 Percé Rock Geopark, Québec
	25.4 National Parks in Eastern Canada
		25.4.1 Early Initiatives: Pre-second World War
			25.4.1.1 Thousand Islands National Park, Ontario
			25.4.1.2 Point Pélée National Park, Ontario
			25.4.1.3 Georgian Bay Islands National Park, Ontario
			25.4.1.4 Cape Breton Highlands National Park, Nova Scotia
			25.4.1.5 Prince Edward Island National Park, PEI
		25.4.2 Post Second World War, 1948–1973
			25.4.2.1 Fundy National Park, New Brunswick
			25.4.2.2 Terra Nova National Park, Newfoundland
			25.4.2.3 Kejimkujik National Park, Nova Scotia
			25.4.2.4 Kouchibouguac National Park, New Brunswick
			25.4.2.5 La Mauricie National Park, Québec
			25.4.2.6 Forillon National Park, Québec
			25.4.2.7 Pukaskwa National Park, Ontario
		25.4.3 Slow Growth, 1984–1996
			25.4.3.1 Mingan Archipelago National Park Reserve, Québec
			25.4.3.2 Quttinirpaaq National Park, Nunavut
			25.4.3.3 Wapusk National Park, Manitoba
		25.4.4 Renewal: (2001–2019)
			25.4.4.1 Auyuittuq National Park, Nunavut
			25.4.4.2 Ukkusiksalik, Nunavut
			25.4.4.3 Sable Island, Nova Scotia (Off Shore)
	25.5 Other Protected Areas
		25.5.1 Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario
		25.5.2 Sir Richard Squires Memorial Provincial Park, Newfoundland
		25.5.3 Mount Carleton Provincial Park, New Brunswick
		25.5.4 Parc National Saguenay Fjord, Québec
	25.6 Conclusion
	References
26 Implications of the Anthropocene Epoch for Geomorphology
	Abstract
	26.1 The Context Created by Recognition of the Anthropocene Epoch
	26.2 The Root of the Problem
	26.3 Does Geomorphology Need Recasting?
	26.4 Geomorphology as Landscape Science
	26.5 Recasting Geomorphology
		26.5.1 Ethnogeomorphology as a Path Forward
	26.6 Conclusion
	References
Index