Kokota Grammar (Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, 35)

Contents......Page 8
List of Figures and Tables......Page 19
Acknowledgments......Page 21
Glossing Abbreviations......Page 22
1.1 Sociolinguistic context......Page 24
1.2 Kokota in Oceanic......Page 25
1.4 The present study......Page 26
1.5 Orthography......Page 27
2.1.1.1 Consonant phoneme inventory......Page 28
2.1.1.1.1 Evidence for phoneme status: consonants......Page 29
2.1.1.1.2 Consonant phoneme frequencies......Page 30
2.1.1.2.3.2 Coronl fricatives......Page 31
2.1.1.2.3.3.1 Surface deletion......Page 32
2.1.1.2.3.3.2 Morphophonemic deletion of nonlabial noncoronal fricatives......Page 33
2.1.1.3.1 Labialization and velarization......Page 34
2.1.1.3.3 Glottal epenthesis......Page 35
2.1.1.3.4 Glides......Page 36
2.1.2.2 Evidence for phoneme status: vowels......Page 37
2.1.2.4.1 Diphthong formation......Page 38
2.1.2.4.1.2 Diphthong frequencies......Page 39
2.1.2.4.3 Glide formation......Page 40
2.1.2.4.4 Interconsonantal vowel devoicing......Page 42
2.2.1.2 Onset clusters......Page 43
2.2.1.2.1 Permissible onset clusters......Page 44
2.2.1.2.3.1 A coronal C1......Page 45
2.2.1.2.3.2 Obstruent plus obstruent clusters......Page 46
2.2.2 Nuclei......Page 47
2.3 Word minimality......Page 48
2.4.1.1 Function of partial reduplication......Page 49
2.4.1.2 Formal characteristics of partial reduplication......Page 50
2.4.1.3 Non-synchronic echo syllables......Page 51
2.4.2 Full reduplication......Page 52
2.5.1 Metrical stress and moraic theory......Page 53
2.5.2 Foot structure and alignment......Page 54
2.5.3 Moraic and syllabic stress variation......Page 55
2.5.4 Irregular stress assignment in roots with light syllables only......Page 58
2.5.5 The effect of suffixes and enclitics on stress assignment......Page 60
2.5.6.1 Stress implications of reduplication......Page 65
2.5.6.2 Stress implications of the causative particle fa......Page 67
2.5.6.3 Stress implications of the preposition ka......Page 69
2.6.1.1 Word-final syncope before consonants......Page 70
2.6.1.2 Word-final syncope before vowels......Page 72
2.6.3.1 Syncope with enclitics......Page 73
2.6.3.2 Sycope with proclitics......Page 74
2.6.4 Suffixed demonstrative vowel syncope......Page 75
2.6.5 Word internal syncope between non-identical consonants......Page 76
2.6.6.1 Geminates in suffixes and enclitics......Page 77
2.6.6.2 Geminates in synchronic reduplication......Page 79
2.6.7 Compensatory lengthening......Page 80
2.6.9 Vowel coalescence......Page 81
2.6.10 Glide formation......Page 82
3.1.1.1.1 Endocentric compounds......Page 86
3.1.1.1.2 Exocentric compounds......Page 87
3.1.1.2 Nominal derivation by reduplication......Page 88
3.1.2.2 Independent pronouns......Page 90
3.1.2.2.1 Pronominal number marking......Page 91
3.1.2.2.2 Third person singular gender distinctions......Page 92
3.1.2.2.3 Indefinite pronoun......Page 93
3.1.2.3 Reflexive forms......Page 94
3.1.3.1 Demonstrative forms and categories......Page 95
3.1.3.2 Temporal distance......Page 96
3.1.3.3 Clausal demonstratives......Page 97
3.1.4.1 Emphatic -hi......Page 99
3.1.4.2 Specifying -lau......Page 100
3.2 Adominal modifiers......Page 102
3.2.1.2 Articles......Page 103
3.2.1.4 Nonspecific marker keha......Page 104
3.2.2.1 Number marking......Page 107
3.2.2.2.1.1 Numerals and complex number forms......Page 108
3.2.2.2.1.3 Ordinal numbers......Page 110
3.2.2.2.1.4 Cardinal numbers......Page 112
3.2.2.2.1.5 Small indeterminate number specification......Page 113
3.2.2.2.2.2 Legu and le-legu 'every'......Page 114
3.2.2.3 "Multitude" markers tehi and toga-tehi......Page 115
3.2.2.4 Gudu 'Exhaustive'......Page 116
3.2.3 Adjectives......Page 117
3.2.3.1.1 Mata 'bush'......Page 118
3.2.3.1.3 Tove 'old'......Page 119
3.2.3.2.1 Gender......Page 120
3.2.3.2.3 Foforu=na 'new'......Page 121
3.3 Structure of Noun Phrases with common noun head......Page 122
3.3.1.2.1 Nouns as post-head core modifier......Page 123
3.3.1.2.2 Personal name core modifiers......Page 125
3.3.1.2.4 Local nouns as core modifiers......Page 126
3.3.1.3 Direct possessor-indexing......Page 127
3.3.2.1 Pre-core modifier structure......Page 128
3.3.2.2.1 Post-core outer modifiers......Page 129
3.3.2.2.2 Possessor complement......Page 130
3.3.2.2.3.1 Adominal prepostitional adjuncts......Page 131
3.3.2.2.3.4 Local noun adjuncts......Page 132
3.3.2.2.3.6 Relative clauses......Page 133
3.3.3 Multiple head NPs......Page 135
3.3.4 Summary of NP structure......Page 136
3.4.1.1 Pronominal head......Page 137
3.4.1.4 NP specification of pronouns......Page 138
3.4.1.5 Personal name specification of pronouns......Page 139
3.4.2.1 Indirect possessor-indexing host as head......Page 140
3.4.3 NPs with reflexive head......Page 142
3.4.5 NPs with personal name as head......Page 143
3.4.6 Nps with numeral headd......Page 144
3.5 Nominal adjunct types......Page 145
4.1 Prepostitional phrases......Page 146
4.2.1 Deictic spatial locatives......Page 148
4.2.2 Indefinite spatial locative proform hae......Page 149
4.2.3 Deictic temoral locatives......Page 150
4.3 Location names......Page 152
4.4.1 Intrinsic and relative locatives......Page 153
4.4.2 Absolute locatives......Page 157
4.5 Contextualizer nouns......Page 160
4.6 Associative noun......Page 162
5.3 Indirect possessor-indexing......Page 164
5.4.1.1 Inalienable kin......Page 165
5.4.1.2.1 Body parts and bodily matter......Page 166
5.4.1.2.3 Inanimate part-whole relationships......Page 167
5.4.1.4 Possession of non-physical 'parts'......Page 168
5.4.1.5 Divisions of time and stage in temporal frames......Page 169
5.4.1.6 Intrinsic characteristics......Page 170
5.4.1.7 Possession of adjectives......Page 172
5.4.1.9 Possession of contextualizer and associative nouns......Page 173
5.4.1.11 Possession of events......Page 174
5.4.2 Optional nature of direct possessor-indexing......Page 175
5.5.1 Possession of consumed items......Page 176
5.5.2.1 Alienably possessed kin......Page 177
5.6.1 Variability in possessor-indexing choice......Page 178
5.6.2.1 Consumed and general indirect possessive variation......Page 179
5.6.2.2.1 Intrinsic characeristics possessable by others......Page 180
5.6.2.2.3 Possession of children......Page 182
5.6.3.2 Non-intrinsic charactistics......Page 183
5.7.1 Pseudo-locative possession by prepostitional phrase......Page 185
5.8 Zero marked possession within prepostional phreases......Page 187
5.9.1 Heads and adjuncts in possessor-indexed NPs......Page 188
5.9.2 Possessor as complement......Page 189
5.9.3 Recursion......Page 190
5.10.2 Verbs of possession......Page 191
5.11 Possessive marking in the verb comples......Page 192
6.1.1 Argument role hierarchy......Page 194
6.1.2 Argument agreement indexing......Page 195
6.1.2.2.1 Posterverbal agreement allomorphy......Page 196
6.1.2.2.2 Postverbal agreement as clitic......Page 198
6.1.3 The assignment of agreement......Page 199
6.1.3.1.1 Monovalent verbs......Page 200
6.1.3.1.2 Bivalent verbs......Page 201
6.1.3.1.3 Trivalent verbs......Page 203
6.1.3.2.1 Involuntary bodily actions......Page 205
6.1.3.2.2 Verbs of illness......Page 207
6.1.3.2.3 Negative sensory states......Page 208
6.1.3.2.4 Verbs of possession......Page 210
6.1.3.2.5 Verbs of pleasure and displeasure......Page 212
6.2 Permissible subject roles......Page 213
6.3.1.1.1 Unergative derivation......Page 215
6.3.1.1.2 Unaccusative derivation......Page 216
6.3.2 Valency  augmentation by the transitivizing suffix......Page 217
6.3.2.1.1 Augmentation of unergative verbs......Page 220
6.3.2.1.2 Augmentation of unaccusative verbs......Page 221
6.3.3 Valency augmentation by causative marking......Page 222
6.3.3.1 Causative marking of monovalent stative verbs......Page 223
6.3.3.2 Causative marking of monovalent active verbs......Page 224
6.3.3.3 Causative marking restriction to monovalent verbs......Page 225
6.4.1 Incorporating verb forms......Page 226
6.4.2 Incoporated nominals......Page 227
6.4.3 Structure of incoporating verb complexes......Page 228
6.4.4 Object-indexing on incorporating verb complexes......Page 229
6.5.1 V1+V2 series......Page 230
6.5.2 V2+V3 series......Page 233
6.5.3 Three-verb series......Page 235
6.5.4 The argument structure of serial predications......Page 236
6.6.1 Positive existential verb au......Page 237
6.6.2 Negative existential verb teo......Page 239
6.6.4 Causativized existential verbs......Page 240
6.6.5 Teo as a verb proform......Page 241
6.7.1.1 Spatial locatives......Page 242
6.7.1.2 Source and goal......Page 244
6.7.1.4 Cause......Page 248
6.7.1.5 Instrument......Page 250
6.7.1.7 Comitative......Page 251
6.7.2.1 Deictics and local nouns......Page 253
6.7.2.2 Location names......Page 254
6.7.2.3 Contextualizer and associative nouns......Page 255
7.2.2 Reduplicated verbs......Page 256
7.2.5 Comparative suffix -ia ~ -a......Page 257
7.3 Causative and reciprocal marking......Page 260
7.4 Adverbial-liike functions of verb serialization......Page 261
7.5.2.2 Modal and subject agreement forms......Page 263
7.5.2.3.1 Irrealis......Page 264
7.5.2.3.2 Realis......Page 265
7.5.2.3.3 Neutral......Page 266
7.5.2.4 Competing particles unmarked for subject......Page 268
7.5.2.7 Perfective aspect marker ke......Page 270
7.5.2.8 Present tense marker ge......Page 272
7.5.3 Abilitative boka 'be able to'......Page 273
7.5.4.1 Desiderative verb manahagi......Page 274
7.5.4.3 General possessor-indexing host as preverbal desiderative modifier......Page 276
7.5.6 Purposive mala......Page 279
7.5.7 Torai 'definitely'......Page 280
7.5.8 Furutre tense marker ginai......Page 281
7.5.9 Frequency markers fani and tuma......Page 282
7.6.1 Possessor-indexing host as post-head immediacy marker......Page 283
7.6.4 Demostrative agreement enclitics......Page 287
7.6.5 Incorporated arguments......Page 288
7.6.6 Continuous marker =gu ~ =u......Page 289
7.6.7 Completive aspect marker nhigo......Page 290
7.6.9 Exhaustive marker gudu......Page 291
7.6.10 Intensifier glehe......Page 292
7.7.1 Verb complex core structure......Page 294
7.7.2 Verb complex outer modifier structure......Page 295
8.1.1.1 Basic equative clauses......Page 296
8.1.1.3 Subject-predicate consituent order in equative clauses......Page 297
8.1.1.5 Telling the time......Page 298
8.1.1.6.1 Main clause naming equatives......Page 299
8.1.2 Possessive predicates......Page 300
8.2.1 Pragmatically unmarked core argument structure......Page 301
8.2.2 Pregmatically unmarked adjunct structure......Page 302
8.3 Zero mentions......Page 304
8.4 Topicalization......Page 309
8.5.1.1 Clauses foregrounded with si......Page 314
8.5.1.2 Si marking constituents modifiers......Page 315
8.5.1.4 Sentence-initial extra-clausal occurrence of sini......Page 317
8.5.2.1 Focused forms......Page 318
8.5.2.2 Focus and constituent modifiers......Page 319
8.5.2.3 Focused dummy argument =ia......Page 320
8.5.2.5 Focus marking in eqative and possessive predicates......Page 321
8.6.1 Contextual adjuncts......Page 322
8.6.2.1 Locatives and associative adjuncts......Page 324
8.6.2.2 Non-outermost locatives and associatives......Page 326
8.6.2.3 Order of multiple adjuncts......Page 327
8.7 Negation......Page 330
8.7.1 Negation by the negative particle ti......Page 331
8.7.2 Subordinating negation......Page 333
8.8 Constituent modifiers......Page 336
8.8.1 Ba Alternative marker......Page 337
8.8.2 Bo Contrastive......Page 341
8.8.3 Bla(u) Limiter......Page 344
8.8.4 Bai(u) Possibilitative......Page 346
8.8.5 Na Immediacy particle......Page 347
8.8.6 Fea 'initiality'......Page 350
8.8.7 The particle la......Page 351
8.9 Vocative particle nogoi ~ goi......Page 352
9.1.1 Positive imperatives......Page 354
9.1.2 Negative impertives......Page 355
9.2.1 Polar and option interrogatives......Page 356
9.2.2.1.1 Hei 'who'......Page 358
9.2.2.1.2 Heve 'what' (referring to participants)......Page 360
9.2.2.1.3 Niha- 'when"......Page 361
9.2.2.1.4 Hae 'where'......Page 363
9.2.2.2 Event identification......Page 365
9.2.2.3.1 Heve 'which' questions......Page 366
9.2.2.3.2 Gela heve 'in what manner/to what extent' questions......Page 367
9.2.2.3.3 Niha 'how many/much' questions......Page 368
9.2.3.1 Manner questions......Page 369
9.2.3.2 Cause questions......Page 370
10.1.1.1 Ge and age as clause sequencing particles......Page 372
10.1.1.2 Ge as a sub-clause level conjunction......Page 376
10.1.2 Contrastive conjunction na......Page 377
10.1.3 Zero conjunction......Page 378
10.1.4 N-e=u 'it is thus' as conjunction......Page 379
10.2 Subordination......Page 381
10.2.1 Realis versus irrealis subordination......Page 382
10.2.2.1 Topicalization i nrelative and complement clauses......Page 387
10.2.2.2 Focus in relative and complement clauses......Page 388
10.2.3.1 Main clause argument modified......Page 389
10.2.3.2 Relative clause argument roles......Page 390
10.2.3.4 Relative clause structure......Page 392
10.2.3.6 Relative clause demonstative enclitics......Page 394
10.2.4.1 Subordinate clauses as subjects......Page 396
10.2.4.2.1 Complement clause grammatical realtions and interclausal argument conference......Page 397
10.2.4.3 Nominalized clauses as adjuncts......Page 401
10.2.4.4 Subordinate clause recursion......Page 402
10.2.5.1.2 Contextual clauses governed by contextualizer nouns......Page 403
10.2.5.2 Temporal adjuncts governed by local nouns......Page 406
10.2.5.3 Temporal adjuncts governed by gilai 'until'......Page 408
10.2.6 Conditional clauses......Page 409
10.2.7.1 Main clause possiblities of purposive subordinates......Page 413
10.2.7.2 Modal and tense/aspect status of purposive subordinates......Page 414
10.2.7.3 Internal structure of purposive subordinates......Page 416
10.3.1 Demonstrative recapping......Page 418
10.3.2 Oblique demonstrative recapping......Page 419
10.3.3 Reduced clause recapping......Page 420
10.3.4 'Completion' clause recapping......Page 421
10.4.1 Exclamatory tag clauses......Page 423
10.4.2 Sentence-intital 'be thus' clauses......Page 426
10.4.3 Quotative 'be thus' clauses......Page 427
Appendix: Illustrative Text......Page 430
References......Page 438
Index......Page 440