Investigating oceanography

Cover
INVESTIGATING OCEANOGRAPHY
About the Authors
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Reviewers
Prologue
	Prologue: The History of Oceanography
		P.1 The Early Times
		P.2 The Middle Ages
		P.3 Voyages of Discovery
		P.4 The Importance of Charts and Navigational Information
		P.5 Ocean Science Begins
		P.6 Early Expeditions of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
			The Challenger Expedition
			Diving In: The Voyage of the Challenger, 1872–1876
			The Voyage of the Fram
			The Meteor Expedition
		P.7 Ocean Science in Modern Times
			Establishing Oceanographic Institutions
			Large-Scale, Direct Exploration of the Oceans
			Diving In: “FLIP,” the Floating Instrument Platform
			Satellite Oceanography, Remote Sensing of the Oceans
		Summary
CHAPTER 1
	The Water Planet
		1.1 Cosmic Beginnings
			Origin of the Universe
			Origin of Our Solar System
			Extraterrestrial Oceans
			Diving In: Origin of the Oceans
			Early Planet Earth
		1.2 Earth’s Age and Time
			Earth’s Age
			Geologic Time
			Natural Time Periods
		1.3 Earth’s Shape
		1.4 Where on Earth Are You?
			Latitude and Longitude
			Measuring Latitude
			Longitude and Time
		1.5 Modern Navigation
		1.6 Earth Is a Water Planet
			Water on Earth’s Surface
			Hydrologic Cycle
			Reservoirs and Residence Time
			Distribution of Land and Water
			One World Ocean Divided into Five
			Hypsographic Curve
		Summary
CHAPTER 2
	Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics
		2.1 Earth’s Interior
			Earthquake Waves Reveal Earth’s Layers
			Model 1: Layers with Different Mineral and Chemical Compositions
			Model 2: Layers with Different Strengths and Physical Properties
			Isostasy
		2.2 History of a Theory: Continental Drift
		2.3 Evidence for a New Theory: Seafloor Spreading
			Evidence for Crustal Motion
		2.4 Plate Tectonics
			Plates and Their Boundaries
			Divergent Boundaries
			Transform Boundaries
			Convergent Boundaries
			Continental Margins
			Diving In: Recovery of Black Smokers
		2.5 Motion of the Plates
			Mechanisms of Motion
			Rates of Motion
			Hotspots
		2.6 History of the Continents
			The Breakup of Pangaea
			Before Pangaea
		Summary
CHAPTER 3
	The Sea Floor and Its Sediments
		3.1 Measuring the Depths
		3.2 Seafloor Provinces
			Continental Margins and Submarine Canyons
			Abyssal Plains
			Ridges, Rises, and Trenches
			Diving In: Exploring the Mariana Trench
		3.3 Sediments
			Why Study Sediments?
			Classification Methods
			Particle Size
			Location and Rates of Deposition
			Source and Chemistry
			Patterns of Deposit on the Sea Floor
			Formation of Rock
			Sampling Methods
			Sediments as Historical Records
		3.4 Seabed Resources
			Sand and Gravel
			Phosphorite
			Oil and Gas
			Gas Hydrates
			Manganese Nodules
			Sulfide Mineral Deposits
		Summary
CHAPTER 4
	The Physical Properties of Water
		4.1 The Water Molecule
		4.2 Temperature and Heat
		4.3 Changes of State
		4.4 Specific Heat
		4.5 Cohesion, Surface Tension, and Viscosity
		4.6 Density
			The Effect of Pressure
			The Effect of Temperature
			The Effect of Salt
		4.7 Transmission of Energy
			Heat
			Light
			Sound
			Diving In: Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate
		Summary
CHAPTER 5
	The Chemistry of Seawater
		5.1 Salts
			Dissolving Ability of Water
			Units of Concentration
			Ocean Salinities
			Dissolved Salts
			Sources of Salt
			Regulating the Salt Balance
			Residence Time
			Constant Proportions
			Determining Salinity
		5.2 Gases
			Distribution with Depth
			The Carbon Dioxide Cycle
			The Oxygen Balance
			Measuring the Gases
		5.3 Carbon Dioxide and the Ocean
			The pH of Seawater
			The Marine Carbonate System and Buffering pH
			Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide and Ocean Acidification
		5.4 Nutrients and Organics
			Nutrients
			Organics
		5.5 Practical Considerations: Salt and Water
			Chemical Resources
			Desalination
		Summary
CHAPTER 6
	The Atmosphere and the Oceans
		6.1 Heating and Cooling Earth’s Surface
			Distribution of Solar Radiation
			Heat Budget
			Annual Cycles of Solar Radiation
			Specific Heat and Heat Capacity
			Diving In: Oceanography of Tidewater Glacier Margins: Undergraduate Research on Svalbard
		6.2 Sea Ice and Icebergs
			Sea Ice
			Icebergs
		6.3 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere
			Structure of the Atmosphere
			Composition of Air
			Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect
			Ozone
			Diving In: Clouds and Climate
		6.4 The Atmosphere in Motion
			Atmospheric Pressure
			Winds on a Nonrotating Earth
			The Effects of Rotation
			Wind Bands
		6.5 Modifying the Wind Bands
			Seasonal Changes
			The Monsoon Effect
			The Topographic Effect
		6.6 Hurricanes and Coastal Flooding
			Hurricanes
			Coastal Flooding
		6.7 El Niño–Southern Oscillation
		Summary
CHAPTER 7
	Ocean Structure and Circulation
		7.1 Ocean Structure
			Variation of Temperature with Depth
			Variation of Salinity with Depth
			Variation of Density with Depth
		7.2 Thermohaline Circulation and Water Masses
			Thermohaline Circulation
			Water Masses
		7.3 The Layered Oceans
			The Atlantic Ocean
			The Pacific Ocean
			The Indian Ocean
			The Arctic Ocean
			Internal Mixing
		7.4 What Drives the Surface Currents?
			The Ekman Spiral and Ekman Transport
			Ocean Gyres
			Geostrophic Flow
		7.5 Ocean Surface Currents
			Pacific Ocean Currents
			Atlantic Ocean Currents
			Indian Ocean Currents
			Arctic Ocean Currents
			Antarctic Currents
			The Indonesian Throughflow
		7.6 Current Characteristics
			Current Speed
			Current Volume Transport
			Western Intensification
		7.7 Eddies
		7.8 Convergence and Divergence
			Langmuir Cells
			Permanent Zones
			Seasonal Zones
		7.9 The Great Ocean Conveyor Belt
		7.1 0Changing Circulation Patterns
			North Pacific Oscillations
			North Atlantic Oscillations
		7.1 1Measuring the Currents
			Diving In: Ocean Drifters
		Summary
Oceanography from SPACE
CHAPTER 8
	The Waves
		8.1 How a Wave Begins
			Forces Influencing Waves
			Two Types of Wind-Generated Waves
		8.2 Anatomy of a Wave
		8.3 Wave Speed
		8.4 Deep-Water Waves in Detail
			Deep-Water Wave Motion
			Deep-Water Wave Speed
			Storm Centers
			Dispersion
			Group Speed
			Wave Interaction
			Wave Height
			Episodic Waves
			Wave Energy
			Wave Steepness
			Universal Sea State Code
		8.5 Shallow-Water Waves in Detail
			Shallow-Water Wave Motion
			Shallow-Water Wave Speed
			Refraction
			Reflection
			Diffraction
		8.6 The Surf Zone
			Breakers
			Water Transport and Rip Currents
			Energy Release
		8.7 Tsunami
			Diving In: The March 11, 2011 Japanese Tsunami
		8.8 Internal Waves
		8.9 Standing Waves
		8.1 0Practical Considerations: Energy from Waves
		Summary
CHAPTER 9
	The Tides
		9.1 Tide Patterns
		9.2 Tide Levels
		9.3 Tidal Currents
		9.4 Modeling the Tides
			The Earth-Moon System
			Earth and Moon Rotation
			The Sun Tide
			Spring Tides and Neap Tides
			Declinational Tides
			Elliptical Orbits
		9.5 Real Tides in Real Ocean Basins
			The Tide Wave
			Progressive Wave Tides
			Standing Wave Tides
			Tide Waves in Narrow Basins
		9.6 Tidal Bores
		9.7 Predicting Tides and Tidal Currents
			Tide Tables
			Diving In: Measuring Tides from Space
			Tidal Current Tables
		9.8 Practical Considerations: Energy from Tides
		Summary
CHAPTER10
	Coasts, Beaches, and Estuaries
		10.1 Major Coastal Zones
		10.2 Types of Coasts
			Primary Coasts
			Secondary Coasts
		10.3 Anatomy of a Beach
		10.4 Beach Dynamics
			Natural Processes
			Coastal Circulation
			Diving In: Beach Dynamics: Tracking the Movement of Beach Sediment
		10.5 Beach Types
		10.6 Modifying Beaches
			Coastal Structures
			The Santa Barbara Story
			The History of Ediz Hook
		10.7 Estuaries
			Types of Estuaries
			Circulation Patterns
			Temperate-Zone Estuaries
		10.8 Regions of High Evaporation
		10.9 Flushing Time
		Summary
CHAPTER 11
	The Living Ocean
		11.1 Evolution in the Marine Environment
		11.2 The Flow of Energy
		11.3 The Importance of Size
		11.4 Groups of Organisms
		11.5 Facts of Life in the Ocean
			Light
			Temperature
			Salinity
			Diving In: Bioluminescence in the Sea
			Buoyancy
			Inorganic Nutrients
			Dissolved Gases
		11.6 Environmental Zones
		11.7 Marine Biodiversity
		Summary
CHAPTER12
	The Plankton, Productivity, and Food Webs
		12.1 The Marine Photoautotrophs
		12.2 The Plankton
		12.3 Phytoplankton
			Harmful Algal Blooms
		12.4 Zooplankton
		12.5 Bacterioplankton and Viruses
		12.6 Primary Production
			Diving In: Extremophiles
		12.7 Measuring Primary Productivity
		12.8 Phytoplankton Biomass
		12.9 Controls on Productivity and Biomass
		12.10 Food Webs and the Biological Pump
			Food Webs
			Biological Pump
			Marine Bacteria and Nutrients
		12.1 1Global Patterns of Productivity
		Summary
CHAPTER 13
	The Nekton: Swimmers of the Sea
		13.1 The Nekton Defined
		13.2 Swimming Marine Invertebrates
		13.3 Marine Reptiles
			Sea Snakes
			Sea Turtles
		13.4 Marine Birds
		13.5 Fish
			Jawless Fish
			Sharks and Rays
			Bony Fish
			Deep-Sea Species of Bony Fish
		13.6 Marine Mammals
			Sea Otters
			Walrus
			Polar Bears
			Seals and Sea Lions
			Sea Cows
			Whales
			Whaling
			Marine Mammal Protection Act
			Communication
			Diving In: Whale Falls
		Summary
CHAPTER 14
	The Benthos: Living on the Sea Floor
		14.1 The Benthic Environment
		14.2 Seaweeds and Marine Plants
			General Characteristics of Benthic Algae
			Kinds of Seaweeds
			Marine Plant Communities
		14.3 Animals of the Rocky Shore
			Tide Pools
			Submerged Rocky Bottoms
		14.4 Animals of the Soft Substrates
		14.5 Animals of the Deep-Sea Floor
		14.6 Coral Reefs
			Tropical Corals
			Tropical Coral Reefs
			Coral Bleaching
			Predation and Disease
			Human Activities
			Deep-Water Corals
			Diving In: Undersea Ultraviolet Radiation
		14.7 Deep-Ocean Chemosynthetic Communities
			Hot Vents
			Cold Seeps
		14.8 Symbiosis
		Summary
CHAPTER 15
	Environmental Issues
		15.1 Human Impacts Through Time
		15.2 Marine Pollution
			Solid Waste Dumping
			Sewage Effluent
			Toxicants
		15.3 Plastic Trash
		15.4 Eutrophication and Hypoxia
		15.5 Oil Spills
			Diving In: Impacts from the Deepwater Horizon Spill
		15.6 Marine Wetlands
		15.7 Biological Invaders
		15.8 Overfishing and Incidental Catch
			Trends in Fishing Pressure
			Indirect Impacts
			Fish Farming
			Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management
		15.9 Afterthoughts
		Summary
CHAPTER 16
	The Oceans and Climate Disruption
		16.1 Earth as a Whole: The Oceans and Climate
		16.2 Earth’s Climate: Always Changing
			Earth’s Past Climate
			Earth’s Present Climate
			Earth’s Future Climate
		16.3 The Oceans in a Warmer World
			Ocean Acidification
			Rising Sea Level
			Winds, Waves, and Storms
			Diving In: Arctic Sea Ice Loss, Mid-Latitude Extreme Weather, and Superstorm Sandy
			Thermohaline Circulation
			Biological Responses
		16.4 Mitigation Strategies
			Ocean Energy
			Diving In: Extracting Energy Resources from the Oceans
			Carbon Sequestration
			The International Response
		Summary
Appendix A Scientific (or Exponential) Notation
Appendix B SI Units
Appendix C Equations and Quantitative Relationships
Glossary
Credits
Index