Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology

Cover
Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology
Copyright
Contents
Dedication
About the author
Preface
List of acronyms
	General
	Minerals
	Metals/semimetals/nonmetals
	Measures
1 Minerals and rocks
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Importance of minerals, rocks, and soils to society
	1.3 Minerals
		1.3.1 Nonmetallic minerals
			1.3.1.1 Alabaster
			1.3.1.2 Amethyst
			1.3.1.3 Andalusite
			1.3.1.4 Calcite
			1.3.1.5 Diamond
			1.3.1.6 Fluorite
			1.3.1.7 Garnet
			1.3.1.8 Graphite
			1.3.1.9 Gypsum
			1.3.1.10 Halite
			1.3.1.11 Lepidolite
			1.3.1.12 Quartz
			1.3.1.13 Sulfur
			1.3.1.14 Topaz
			1.3.1.15 Tourmaline
		1.3.2 Metallic minerals
			1.3.2.1 Native copper
			1.3.2.2 Native gold
			1.3.2.3 Native platinum
			1.3.2.4 Native silver
			1.3.2.5 Arsenopyrite
			1.3.2.6 Azurite
			1.3.2.7 Bauxite
			1.3.2.8 Cassiterite
			1.3.2.9 Cerussite
			1.3.2.10 Chalcopyrite
			1.3.2.11 Chromite
			1.3.2.12 Cinnabar
			1.3.2.13 Galena
			1.3.2.14 Hematite
			1.3.2.15 Malachite
			1.3.2.16 Millerite
			1.3.2.17 Pyrite
			1.3.2.18 Pyrrhotite
			1.3.2.19 Rhodochrosite
			1.3.2.20 Scheelite
			1.3.2.21 Skutterudite
			1.3.2.22 Sperrylite
			1.3.2.23 Sphalerite
			1.3.2.24 Stibnite
			1.3.2.25 Wolframite
	1.4 Rocks
	1.5 Mineral resources
	References
2 Extraterrestrial systems
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Definition
		2.2.1 Universe
			2.2.1.1 Theory of “Big Bang”
		2.2.2 Galaxy
		2.2.3 Stars
		2.2.4 Planets and planetary systems
		2.2.5 Satellites
		2.2.6 Comets
		2.2.7 Asteroids
			2.2.7.1 Asteroid belt
			2.2.7.2 Kuiper belt
		2.2.8 Meteorites and stardust
	2.3 The Sun
		2.3.1 Solar System
		2.3.2 Origin of the Solar System
			2.3.2.1 Protoplanets hypothesis
			2.3.2.2 Nebular hypotheses
	2.4 Planetary formation: physical and chemical aspects
		2.4.1 Mercury
		2.4.2 Venus
		2.4.3 Earth
			2.4.3.1 Moon
				2.4.3.1.1 Super Moon
				2.4.3.1.2 Solar eclipse—new moon
				2.4.3.1.3 Lunar eclipse – full moon
		2.4.4 Mars
		2.4.5 Jupiter
			2.4.5.1 Europa
			2.4.5.2 Ganymede
			2.4.5.3 Io
			2.4.5.4 Callisto
		2.4.6 Saturn
			2.4.6.1 Titan
			2.4.6.2 Rhea
			2.4.6.3 Iapetus
			2.4.6.4 Dione
			2.4.6.5 Tethys
			2.4.6.6 Enceladus
		2.4.7 Uranus
			2.4.7.1 Miranda
			2.4.7.2 Ariel
			2.4.7.3 Umbriel
			2.4.7.4 Titania
			2.4.7.5 Oberon
		2.4.8 Neptune
			2.4.8.1 Triton
		2.4.9 Dwarf planet
			2.4.9.1 Pluto
			2.4.9.2 Eris
	2.5 Space exploration (programs and agencies)
		2.5.1 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA
		2.5.2 Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities, Russia and Soviet Space Program, USSR
		2.5.3 European Space Agency, Europe
		2.5.4 Indian Space Research Organisation, India
		2.5.5 China National Space Administration, China
		2.5.6 Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Japan
		2.5.7 Israel Space Agency, Israel
	2.6 Status of space exploration and potential for future mineral exploration in space
		2.6.1 Mercury
		2.6.2 Venus
		2.6.3 Earth
			2.6.3.1 Earth’s Moon
		2.6.4 Mars
		2.6.5 Jupiter
			2.6.5.1 Europa
			2.6.5.2 Ganymede
			2.6.5.3 Io
			2.6.5.4 Callisto
		2.6.6 Saturn
		2.6.7 Uranus
		2.6.8 Neptune
	2.7 Techniques for mineral exploration in space
		2.7.1 Space exploration sampling
			2.7.1.1 Orbiting satellites (orbiter)
			2.7.1.2 Robotic sampler
			2.7.1.3 Lander
			2.7.1.4 Rover
			2.7.1.5 Crewed spacecraft
		2.7.2 Space sample-return mission
		2.7.3 Space resources
	2.8 Space mining and processing of resources
	2.9 Sum up
	References
3 Basic mineralogy
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Internal structure of crystals and their properties
		3.2.1 Crystallized and amorphous solid minerals
		3.2.2 Formation of minerals
		3.2.3 Crystal lattice
		3.2.4 Crystallographic axes, the crystal planes, and elements of crystal symmetry
		3.2.5 Crystal systems, crystal forms, single crystal, and crystal twinning
	3.3 Chemical and physical properties of minerals
		3.3.1 Chemical properties of minerals
		3.3.2 Physical properties of minerals
	3.4 Polymorphism and isomorphism
	3.5 Overview of the main rock-forming minerals
		3.5.1 Autochthonous elements
		3.5.2 Sulfides
		3.5.3 Oxides and hydroxides
		3.5.4 Carbonates
		3.5.5 Halides
		3.5.6 Sulfates
		3.5.7 Phosphates
		3.5.8 Silicates
			3.5.8.1 Nesosilicates (SiO4)4−
			3.5.8.2 Sorosilicates—(Si2O7)6−
			3.5.8.3 Cyclosilicates—(SinO3n)2n−
			3.5.8.4 Inosilicates
				3.5.8.4.1 Single-chan insilicate—pyroxene group
					3.5.8.4.1.1 Orthopyroxenes
					3.5.8.4.1.2 Clinopyroxenes
				3.5.8.4.2 Double-chain inosilicates—amphibole group
					3.5.8.4.2.1 Orthombic amphiboles
					3.5.8.4.2.2 Monoclinic amphiboles
			3.5.8.5 Phyllo-silicates—(Si2nO5n)2n−
				3.5.8.5.1 Group talc–pyrophyllite
				3.5.8.5.2 Mica group
				3.5.8.5.3 Vermiculite group
				3.5.8.5.4 Smectite group
				3.5.8.5.5 Chlorite group
				3.5.8.5.6 Kaoline–Serpentine group
			3.5.8.6 Tectosilicates
				3.5.8.6.1 Feldspar group
					3.5.8.6.1.1 Alkali felgspars
					3.5.8.6.1.2 Plagioclase feldspar series
				3.5.8.6.2 Group feldspathoids
				3.5.8.6.3 Zeolites group
	References
4 Basic petrology
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Interior structure of the Earth
	4.3 Classification of rocks
		4.3.1 Igneous rocks
		4.3.2 Sedimentary rocks
		4.3.3 Metamorphic rocks
	4.4 Origin of Earth and theory of plate tectonics
		4.4.1 Origin of the Earth
			4.4.1.1 The protoplanet hypothesis
			4.4.1.2 The Nebular hypothesis
			4.4.1.3 Age of the Earth
		4.4.2 Plate tectonics
	References
5 Igneous rocks
	5.1 Origin of igneous rocks
		5.1.1 Properties of magma and lava
		5.1.2 Bowen’s reaction series
		5.1.3 Cooling of magma after crystallization
	5.2 Classification of igneous rocks
		5.2.1 Forms of appearance and structure of the intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks
			5.2.1.1 Forms of intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks
			5.2.1.2 Textures of intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks
			5.2.1.3 Shapes and structures of veins igneous rocks
		5.2.2 Forms of appearance and structure of the extrusive (volcanic) igneous rocks
			5.2.2.1 Forms of extrusive igneous rocks
			5.2.2.2 Textures of extrusive igneous rocks
	5.3 Main group of igneous rocks and their composition
		5.3.1 Mineral composition of intrusive igneous rocks
			5.3.1.1 Felsic intrusive igneous rocks
			5.3.1.2 Intermediate intrusive igneous rocks
			5.3.1.3 Mafic intrusive igneous rocks
			5.3.1.4 Ultramafic intrusive igneous rocks
		5.3.2 Extrusive igneous rocks
			5.3.2.1 Felsic extrusive igneous rocks
			5.3.2.2 Intermediate extrusive igneous rocks
			5.3.2.3 Mafic extrusive igneous rocks
		5.3.3 Veins igneous rocks
	References
6 Sedimentary rocks
	6.1 Function, significance, classification, and transformation
	6.2 Sedimentary rock formation
		6.2.1 Weathering
			6.2.1.1 Physical or mechanical weathering
			6.2.1.2 Chemical weathering
			6.2.1.3 Biological weathering
		6.2.2 Sediment transport
			6.2.2.1 Fluvial processes
			6.2.2.2 Eolian processes
			6.2.2.3 Glacial processes
		6.2.3 Deposition
		6.2.4 Lithification
	6.3 Texture and structure of sedimentary rocks
		6.3.1 Bedding
			6.3.1.1 External bedding
			6.3.1.2 Internal bedding
			6.3.1.3 Upper bedding plane structures
			6.3.1.4 Lower bedding plane structures
			6.3.1.5 Forms created by underwater slides and with the destruction of the layers
		6.3.2 Packing of grains
	6.4 Classification of sediments and sedimentary rocks
	6.5 Clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks
		6.5.1 Genesis and classification of clastic sedimentary rocks
		6.5.2 Coarse-grained sediments—rudaceous
			6.5.2.1 Intraformational breccias and conglomerates
			6.5.2.2 Extraformational breccias
				6.5.2.2.1 Extraformational breccias
				6.5.2.2.2 Emersion and collapse breccias
				6.5.2.2.3 Postsedimentary diagenetic (tectogenic-diagenetic) breccias
			6.5.2.3 Extraformation conglomerates
				6.5.2.3.1 Orthoconglomerates
				6.5.2.3.2 Paraconglomerates
		6.5.3 Medium granular clastic sediments—arenaceous rocks
			6.5.3.1 The composition and distribution of sandy sediments
			6.5.3.2 Arenite sandstones or arenaceous rocks
			6.5.3.3 Graywacke or wackes
			6.5.3.4 Mixed or hybrid sandstones
		6.5.4 Fine granular clastic sediments—pelite
			6.5.4.1 Classification of pelitic sediments
				6.5.4.1.1 Clay and claystone
				6.5.4.1.2 Silt and siltstone
				6.5.4.1.3 Shale and mudstone
				6.5.4.1.4 Loess
			6.5.4.2 Marlstone
			6.5.4.3 Organic matter in the argillaceous sediments
			6.5.4.4 Formation of coal and lignite and global status
			6.5.4.5 Formation of oil and gas and global status
		6.5.5 Diagenesis of clastic sediments
			6.5.5.1 Diagenetic processes in sandy sediments
			6.5.5.2 Diagenetic processes in clayey sediments
			6.5.5.3 Residual sediments: laterite, kaolin, bauxite, and terra rossa
	6.6 Volcaniclastic rock
		6.6.1 Definition and origin of volcaniclastic sediments and rocks
		6.6.2 Composition of volcaniclastic sediments and rocks
		6.6.3 Alteration of tuff
	6.7 Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks
		6.7.1 Limestone
			6.7.1.1 Mineral composition, physical, chemical, and biological conditions for foundation of limestone
				6.7.1.1.1 Secretion of carbonate in shallow sea
				6.7.1.1.2 Secretion of carbonate in deeper water
			6.7.1.2 The structural components of limestone
			6.7.1.3 Limestone classification
				6.7.1.3.1 Marine limestone
				6.7.1.3.2 Terrestrial and freshwater limestone
			6.7.1.4 Limestone diagenesis
				6.7.1.4.1 Diagenetic zones and processes of cementization
				6.7.1.4.2 Diagenetic processes at greater depths of covering
				6.7.1.4.3 Isochemicaland allochemical diagenetic procecesses
		6.7.2 Dolomites
			6.7.2.1 The origin of dolomite
			6.7.2.2 Early diagenetic dolomite
			6.7.2.3 Late diagenetic dolomite
		6.7.3 Evaporites
			6.7.3.1 Mineral composition, origin, and classification of evaporite rocks
			6.7.3.2 Petrology and diagenesis of evaporite sediments
		6.7.4 Siliceous sediments and rocks
			6.7.4.1 Mineral composition, origin, and classification of silicon sediments and sedimentary rocks
			6.7.4.2 Siliceous sediments and siliceous rocks of biogenic foundation
			6.7.4.3 Siliceous sediments and siliceous rocks of diagenesis origin
	6.8 Uses
	References
7 Metamorphic rocks
	7.1 Origin and structures of metamorphic rocks
	7.2 Types of metamorphism and classification of metamorphic rocks
	7.3 Rocks of dynamic metamorphism
		7.3.1 Mylonite
		7.3.2 Flazer cataclasite
		7.3.3 Augen gneisses
	7.4 Rocks of contact metamorphism
		7.4.1 Hornfels
		7.4.2 Skarns or tactites
	7.5 Rocks of regional metamorphism
		7.5.1 Schists of low-grade metamorphism
			7.5.1.1 Slate
			7.5.1.2 Phyllite
			7.5.1.3 Sericite schist
			7.5.1.4 Green Schist and Chlorite Schist
			7.5.1.5 Glaucophane schist
			7.5.1.6 Talc schist
			7.5.1.7 Serpentinite
		7.5.2 Schists of high-grade metamorphism
			7.5.2.1 Mica schists
			7.5.2.2 Amphibole schists
			7.5.2.3 Disten or sillimanite, cordierite, and staurolite schists
			7.5.2.4 Graphite Schist
			7.5.2.5 Gneisses
			7.5.2.6 Orthogneiss
			7.5.2.7 Paragneiss
			7.5.2.8 Amphibolites
			7.5.2.9 Quartzite
			7.5.2.10 Marble
	7.6 Rocks of plutonic metamorphism
		7.6.1 Granulites
		7.6.2 Eclogites
		7.6.3 Migmatites
	References
8 Precipitation systems of major sedimentary bodies—collector rocks for oil and gas
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Main forms of collector sedimentary bodies in clastites
		8.2.1 Alluvial fans
		8.2.2 Deltas
		8.2.3 Sand bodies in coastal marine environments (beaches and offshore)
		8.2.4 Debrites
		8.2.5 Turbidity fans
	8.3 Main forms of collector sedimentary bodies in carbonate rocks
		8.3.1 Carbonate platforms
			8.3.1.1 Carbonates of high-energy shallows
			8.3.1.2 Peritidal carbonates
			8.3.1.3 Carbonates of restricted shoals, lagoons, and inner shelf
			8.3.1.4 Carbonate bodies of reef and peri-reef limestones in carbonate platform
		8.3.2 Carbonate debrites and turbidites or allodapic limestones
		8.3.3 Reef and peri-reef bioclastic limestones outside the sarbonate platforms
	References
9 Mineral deposits: host rocks and genetic model
	9.1 Definition
		9.1.1 Mineral
		9.1.2 Rock
		9.1.3 Mineral deposit
			9.1.3.1 Ore and ore deposits
	9.2 Classification of minerals
		9.2.1 Mineral classification system based on chemical composition
		9.2.2 Mineral classification system based on uses
	9.3 Classification of mineral deposits
		9.3.1 Geographic distribution
			9.3.1.1 Province
			9.3.1.2 Region
			9.3.1.3 District
			9.3.1.4 Belt
			9.3.1.5 Deposit
			9.3.1.6 Block
		9.3.2 Depth of occurrence
			9.3.2.1 Exposed to surface
			9.3.2.2 Shallow depth
			9.3.2.3 Deep-seated hidden deposit
		9.3.3 Relation to host rock
			9.3.3.1 Host rocks
			9.3.3.2 Identical to host rock
			9.3.3.3 Different from host rock
			9.3.3.4 Gradational contact
			9.3.3.5 Metal zoning
			9.3.3.6 Wall rock alteration
		9.3.4 Structural control
			9.3.4.1 Undeformed
			9.3.4.2 Joints and fractures
			9.3.4.3 Fold
			9.3.4.4 Fault
			9.3.4.5 Shear zone
			9.3.4.6 Breccia
			9.3.4.7 Subduction
		9.3.5 Nature of mineralization
			9.3.5.1 Dissemination
			9.3.5.2 Massive
			9.3.5.3 Veins
			9.3.5.4 Ladder vein
			9.3.5.5 Stock work
		9.3.6 Morphology
			9.3.6.1 Stratiform
			9.3.6.2 Stratabound
			9.3.6.3 Layered, rhythmic, and bedded
			9.3.6.4 Porphyry
			9.3.6.5 Lenticular
			9.3.6.6 Pipe
		9.3.7 Genetic model
			9.3.7.1 Magmatic
			9.3.7.2 Sedimentary
			9.3.7.3 Metamorphic
			9.3.7.4 Volcanogenic massive sulfide and volcanic-hosted massive sulfide
			9.3.7.5 SedEx type
			9.3.7.6 Black smokers pipe type
			9.3.7.7 Mississippi valley type
			9.3.7.8 Manto-chimney/replacement
			9.3.7.9 Irish
			9.3.7.10 Penine
			9.3.7.11 Alpine/Bleiberg
			9.3.7.12 Skarn type
			9.3.7.13 Residual type
			9.3.7.14 Placer type
		9.3.8 Grain size
			9.3.8.1 Fine grained
			9.3.8.2 Medium grained
			9.3.8.3 Coarse grained
		9.3.9 Contained metal
			9.3.9.1 High grade
			9.3.9.2 Medium grade
			9.3.9.3 Low grade
			9.3.9.4 Very low grade
		9.3.10 Mono-mineral and multiple-mineral deposits
	9.4 Host rocks
	9.5 Industry specifications
	References
10 Mineral resource assessment and economic parameters
	10.1 Definition
	10.2 Parameters
		10.2.1 Cutoff
		10.2.2 Minimum width
		10.2.3 Ore
		10.2.4 Ore deposit
	10.3 Resource estimation procedure
		10.3.1 Small and medium size
		10.3.2 Large and deep seated
			10.3.2.1 Cross section
			10.3.2.2 Mineral resource computation (example)
			10.3.2.3 Long vertical section
			10.3.2.4 Level plan
			10.3.2.5 Inverse power of distance
		10.3.3 Statistical method
		10.3.4 Geostatistical method
		10.3.5 Petroleum (oil and gas)
			10.3.5.1 Analogy base
			10.3.5.2 Volumetric estimate
			10.3.5.3 Performance analysis
	10.4 Resource classification
		10.4.1 Metallic/nonmetallic minerals
			10.4.1.1 Conventional/traditional classification system
			10.4.1.2 USGS/USBM classification scheme
			10.4.1.3 United Nations Framework Classification scheme
			10.4.1.4 Joint Ore Reserve Committee classification code
		10.4.2 Mineral oil and gas
	10.5 Mineral economics
		10.5.1 Stages of investment
		10.5.2 Investment analysis
		10.5.3 Order of magnitude study/scoping study
		10.5.4 Prefeasibility study
		10.5.5 Feasibility study
	10.6 Over view—a complete cycle
		10.6.1 Mineral exploration
		10.6.2 Mining
		10.6.3 Mineral beneficiation
		10.6.4 Smelting
		10.6.5 Refining
		10.6.6 Finished useable goods
	References
	Further Reading
11 Hazards of minerals—rocks and sustainable development
	11.1 Definition
	11.2 Natural hazards
		11.2.1 Earthquake
		11.2.2 Volcano and volcanism
		11.2.3 Glacier and avalanche
		11.2.4 Lightning
		11.2.5 Forest fire
	11.3 Hazards of minerals
		11.3.1 Apatite
		11.3.2 Arsenic
		11.3.3 Asbestos
		11.3.4 Bauxite
		11.3.5 Chalcopyrite
		11.3.6 Chromite
		11.3.7 Cinnabar
		11.3.8 Clay
		11.3.9 Coal and lignite
		11.3.10 Corundum
		11.3.11 Feldspar
		11.3.12 Fluorite
		11.3.13 Galena and cerussite
		11.3.14 Graphite
		11.3.15 Gypsum
		11.3.16 Hematite
		11.3.17 Mica
		11.3.18 Pyrite
		11.3.19 Redon gas
		11.3.20 Silica
		11.3.21 Sphalerite
		11.3.22 Talc
		11.3.23 Uranium minerals
		11.3.24 Wollastonite
	11.4 Hazards of rocks
		11.4.1 Granite
		11.4.2 Limestone
		11.4.3 Sandstone
		11.4.4 Slate
		11.4.5 Rock-fall
		11.4.6 Balancing rocks
		11.4.7 Rock fault
	11.5 Hazards in the mineral industry
		11.5.1 Exploration
		11.5.2 Mining
			11.5.2.1 Baseline monitoring
			11.5.2.2 Surface land
			11.5.2.3 Mine waste
			11.5.2.4 Mine subsidence
			11.5.2.5 Mine fire
			11.5.2.6 Airborne contaminations
			11.5.2.7 Noise pollution
			11.5.2.8 Vibration
			11.5.2.9 Mine safety violation
			11.5.2.10 Water resources
		11.5.3 Mineral beneficiation
		11.5.4 Smelting waste
		11.5.5 Metal refining waste
		11.5.6 Mineral industry rehabilitation
	11.6 Hazards of the mineral industry and human consequences
		11.6.1 Mine waste catastrophe
		11.6.2 Mineral process plant failure
	11.7 Sustainable mineral development
		11.7.1 Indicators
		11.7.2 Minerals and mining as means of achieving sustainable development
	References
Index
Back Cover