International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, Twelve-Volume Set: Volume 11 (International Studies in Educational Achievement)

COVER......Page 1
COPYRIGHT......Page 5
SENIOR EDITORS......Page 6
SECTION EDITORS......Page 8
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA......Page 10
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 12
CONTENTS......Page 38
VOLUME 11......Page 59
SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION......Page 64
FOREWORD by Mary Robinson......Page 76
FOREWORD by Rob Kitchin......Page 78
The Neoliberal Turn and the Underlying Principles of SAPs......Page 82
What Is Structural Adjustment?......Page 84
Impacts and Effects......Page 85
The Politics of Sovereignty and Accountability......Page 88
Further Reading......Page 89
Relevant Websites......Page 90
Introduction......Page 91
A Generic Structural Model and Its Interpretation......Page 93
Estimation......Page 94
Identifiability......Page 95
The Assumption of Multivariate Normality......Page 96
Relevant Websites......Page 98
Introduction......Page 99
Structural Marxism and Marxist Human Geography......Page 100
Structural Marxism and Its Critics......Page 104
Marxian Counter-Critiques......Page 106
Further Reading......Page 109
Relevant Websites......Page 110
Introduction......Page 111
Structuralist Thinkers......Page 112
Structuralist Geography?......Page 116
Conclusion: Ex-Structuralists and Post-Structuralists......Page 118
Further Reading......Page 119
Glossary......Page 120
Giddens’ Theory of Structuration......Page 121
Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice......Page 126
Relevant Websites......Page 130
Glossary......Page 131
Structuration Theory and the Spatial Contexts of Social Agency......Page 132
The Integration of the Theory of Structuration into New Regional Geography......Page 133
Late-Modern Ontology and Structurationist Geography......Page 135
From ‘Space’ to ‘Action’......Page 137
Regionalization as World Binding......Page 138
Relevant Websites......Page 139
Origins and Definitions......Page 140
The Subaltern in Postcolonial Theory......Page 141
Subaltern Historiographies of Geography......Page 142
Space, Place, and the Subaltern......Page 143
Conclusion......Page 144
Relevant Websites......Page 145
Gramsci and Subalternity......Page 146
From Subaltern Studies to Postcolonial Criticism......Page 148
Subalternity and Its Futures......Page 150
Further Reading......Page 151
The Origin of the Knowing Subject......Page 153
Subjective Knowledge......Page 154
Post-Subjectivity......Page 155
Further Reading......Page 157
The Roots and Spread of Suburbia......Page 158
The Relationship with the City......Page 160
Suburban Futures/Issues......Page 161
Further Reading......Page 162
Superpower Rivalries......Page 163
Hyperpower: The Endgame of Superpower or Empire by Another Name?......Page 165
Further Reading......Page 167
Introduction......Page 168
Threads of Revolt......Page 169
Surrealist Urban Dreams......Page 170
Architecture, Space, and Fantasy......Page 172
Engaging Surrealist Geographies......Page 173
Further Reading......Page 175
Surveillance and the Social Sciences......Page 176
Panoptic Visions......Page 177
Omnioptic Visions......Page 178
Automatic Surveillance......Page 179
Relevant Websites......Page 180
Methods......Page 181
Techniques......Page 182
Relevant Websites......Page 183
Finding Sustainability......Page 184
Governing Sustainability......Page 185
Uneven Development......Page 186
Practices and Planning: Sustainable Production and Consumption in Communities......Page 187
Conclusions: From Recognition and Appropriation toward Experimentation......Page 188
Further Reading......Page 189
Metropolitan Utopia and the Origins of Urban Sustainability......Page 190
Provisional Dialogues: Spatial Forms and Sustainability......Page 191
Sustainable Challenges for Urban Geography: Space, Time, and Relational Thinking......Page 192
Case Study I – England’s Urban Renaissance and the Millennium Village Project......Page 193
Case Study II – Urban Sustainability in the Developing World, Ibadan Nigeria......Page 195
Relevant Websites......Page 197
Introduction......Page 198
Framing Sustainable Development......Page 199
Mainstream Sustainable Development......Page 201
The Poverty Consensus: Current Engagement of Development Policy with Local and Global Environments......Page 207
Further Reading......Page 211
Relevant Websites......Page 212
Introduction......Page 213
Symbolic Geographies......Page 214
Interactive Geographies......Page 215
Symbolic Interactionism and Contemporary Human Geography......Page 216
Further Reading......Page 218
Theoretic Overview of Symbolism and Iconography......Page 219
Mechanics of Symbolization......Page 221
Practics of Symbolization......Page 222
Maps and Map Language......Page 224
Further Reading......Page 226
The Origins of Systems Theory......Page 227
Isolated, Closed, and Open Systems......Page 228
Regulation and Variety......Page 229
Self-Image and Reflexivit......Page 230
Further Reading......Page 231
Emergence of Systems Thinking in Contemporary Science......Page 232
From Systems Thinking to Systems Science......Page 233
Cybernetics......Page 235
Complexity Science......Page 236
Contribution of Systems Theory and Complexity Science to Geography......Page 237
Further Reading......Page 238
Relevant Websites......Page 239
Taylor, Griffit (1880–1963)......Page 240
Further Reading......Page 242
Taylor, Peter (1944–)......Page 243
Further Reading......Page 244
Relevant Websites......Page 245
Glossary......Page 246
Intellectual Property......Page 247
The Social and Geographical Construction of Technology......Page 248
Spaces of Science and Technological Change......Page 249
Futures of Technology: A Concluding Comment......Page 250
Relevant Websites......Page 251
Introduction......Page 252
Geographic Sources of Technological Innovation......Page 253
Geographic Mechanisms of Technological Innovation......Page 254
Actors of Innovation and the Scale(s) of Explanation......Page 256
Further Reading......Page 257
Basic Concepts and Definitions......Page 258
Technology Industries and Location......Page 260
Technology Transfer as a Spatial Process......Page 261
Further Reading......Page 263
Popular Misconceptions about Telecommunications......Page 264
Telecommunications and Global Cities......Page 265
Telecommunications and Urban Space......Page 266
The Internet......Page 267
The Oligopolization of Telecommunications......Page 268
Conclusions......Page 269
Relevant Websites......Page 270
A Basic Explanation of the Concept......Page 271
The Characteristics of a TPC in Relation to Other Concepts and Approaches......Page 272
How Is the Concept Embedded in the Socialist Economic and Planning Ideas?......Page 274
Further Reading......Page 275
Preliminaries Issues......Page 277
Analytics......Page 279
Further Reading......Page 289
What and Who of Terror, Terrorist, and Terrorism......Page 290
Spatiality of Terror: Globalization, Scale, and State Violence......Page 291
Unpacking the Discourses of Terrorism......Page 292
Conclusion......Page 294
Relevant Websites......Page 295
Text as Authoritative Edition......Page 296
Textuality......Page 298
Further Reading......Page 300
Glossary......Page 301
Further Reading......Page 303
Three Definition of Theocracy......Page 304
Modern Christian Theocracies......Page 305
Modern Islamic Theocracies......Page 308
Relevant Websites......Page 309
Origins of the Concept......Page 310
Further Reading......Page 311
Discoveries and Rediscoveries of Thiessen Polygons......Page 312
Methods of Constructing Thiessen Polygons......Page 313
Variations of Thiessen Polygons: Generalized Voronoi Diagrams......Page 315
Summary and Conclusion......Page 316
Future Reading......Page 317
Introduction......Page 318
The Meaning of Development......Page 320
New Geopolitics and State Failure......Page 323
One World......Page 324
Relevant Websites......Page 327
Introduction......Page 328
Deconstructing Third World City Research......Page 329
Conclusions – Cities within Cities......Page 335
Relevant Websites......Page 336
Thrift, Nigel (1949–)......Page 337
Further Reading......Page 339
Historical Geographies of Time......Page 340
Time in Historical Geography......Page 342
Time and Historical Geography......Page 344
Further Reading......Page 345
Introduction......Page 347
Basic Ideas of Classical Time Geography......Page 348
Application of Time-Geographic Analysis......Page 350
Geographic Information System, Three-Dimensional Geovisualization and Time-Geographic Analysis......Page 352
Criticisms on Time Geography......Page 357
Future Issues......Page 358
Further Reading......Page 359
On the History of Time-Geography......Page 360
The Notation System and the Conceptual Apparatus......Page 362
Time-Geography Then and Now......Page 364
Further Reading......Page 365
Spectral Analysis......Page 366
Spatial Forecasting......Page 369
Space–Time Forecasting Models......Page 370
Predicting Epidemic Return Times......Page 371
Relevant Websites......Page 374
Introduction......Page 375
Design Dimensions......Page 376
Some Salient Issues......Page 380
Relevant Websites......Page 381
Overview of History of Tourism......Page 382
The Globalization of Tourism and the Increasing Diversity of the Tourist Product......Page 383
Early Theoretical Explanations of Tourism......Page 385
Later Theoretical Explanations of Tourism......Page 386
The Recent Broadening of Theories about Tourism......Page 388
Further Reading......Page 393
Defining Rural Tourism......Page 394
Theoretical Considerations......Page 395
Tourism Impacts and Implications for Sustainable Rural Systems......Page 396
Policy Concerns......Page 397
Relevant Websites......Page 398
Historical and Contemporary Patterns......Page 399
Tourism and Urban Development......Page 400
Issues......Page 402
Relevant Websites......Page 404
Trade Blocs: Pros and Cons......Page 405
Trade Blocs and Developing Countries......Page 407
Conclusion......Page 408
Relevant Websites......Page 409
Introduction: The Theory of Comparative Advantage......Page 410
Challenges to Understanding Contemporary International Trade......Page 411
Changing Sectoral Composition and International Trade......Page 412
Shifting Geographies of Production......Page 413
Regional Trade Agreements......Page 415
Further Reading......Page 417
Relevant Websites......Page 418
The Rise and Decline of Islam......Page 419
The European Trading Polity......Page 420
The First Global Web and Its Problems......Page 421
New Technologies and Hegemonic Shifts......Page 423
The Rise of Air Power......Page 424
Relevant Websites......Page 425
Transatlantic......Page 426
Relevant Websites......Page 430
Practical Issues: Transcription in Research Projects......Page 431
Coding and the Rigorous Analysis of Transcripts......Page 433
Relevant Websites......Page 435
Introduction......Page 436
The Washington Consensus......Page 437
The Social Costs of Transition......Page 438
Institutions and Geographies Matter......Page 439
Relevant Websites......Page 441
Introduction......Page 442
Toward a Critical Theorization of Translation......Page 443
Exploring Translation Practices in Human Geography Research......Page 445
The Politics of Translation......Page 447
Relevant Websites......Page 448
The Changing Geography of the TNC......Page 449
TNCs and the Global South......Page 450
Performing Production Systems and Market b/Orders......Page 453
Further Reading......Page 455
Relevant Websites......Page 456
Introduction......Page 457
The Evolving Nature of the Transnational Elite Concept in Economic Geography......Page 458
Broadening Out and Focusing In......Page 460
Concluding Comments......Page 462
Relevant Websites......Page 463
Glossary......Page 464
The Overseas Chinese Business Networks (OCBN): An Illustration......Page 465
Cautionary Remarks......Page 466
Relevant Websites......Page 468
Transnationalism by Discipline......Page 469
Dimensions of Transnationalism......Page 470
Criticisms of Transnationalism......Page 472
Further Reading......Page 473
Relevant Websites......Page 474
Labor Geography......Page 475
Transnationalism and Labor Markets......Page 476
Transnationalism and Workplace Processes......Page 477
Transnational Organizing......Page 478
Conclusion......Page 479
Relevant Websites......Page 480
Glossary......Page 481
The Rise of Transnational Technical Community and Technology Transfer......Page 482
The Limit of Transnationalism in Technology Innovation......Page 483
Further Reading......Page 484
Introduction......Page 485
The Logics of Transnationality......Page 486
The Uneven Scape of Transnationality......Page 488
Relevant Websites......Page 489
Transport Networks and Accessibility......Page 491
How to Measure Accessibility?......Page 492
Some Accessibility Indicators......Page 493
Relevant Websites......Page 498
Basic Concepts......Page 499
Examples from Experience in Britain......Page 500
Airline Deregulation in Europe......Page 501
Spatial Variation in Impacts......Page 503
Relevant Websites......Page 504
A Historical Perspective on Globalization and Transport......Page 505
The Changing Geographic Impact of Transport......Page 507
Global Transport and Change within Cities......Page 508
Relevant Websites......Page 509
Defining Social Exclusion......Page 510
Social Exclusion and Patterns of Transport Disadvantage......Page 511
Policy Responses......Page 512
Conclusion......Page 514
Relevant Websites......Page 515
The Challenges......Page 516
Policy Issues......Page 519
Conclusions......Page 520
Relevant Websites......Page 521
The Development of Transport Geography......Page 522
Telecommunications and the ‘Death of Distance’......Page 523
Transport and Economic Development......Page 524
Centrality, Proximity, and Intermediacy......Page 526
Transport Deregulation, Privatization, and Network Adaptation......Page 527
Urban Expansion, Transport Technology, and Planning......Page 528
Unsustainable Energy Supplies and the Consequences of Peak Oil......Page 529
Mobility and Accessibility......Page 530
Conclusion......Page 531
Further Reading......Page 532
Introduction......Page 533
Operations......Page 534
Economics......Page 536
Integrating Issues......Page 539
Relevant Websites......Page 540
Transport and Rural Development......Page 541
New Conceptualizations......Page 543
Developing Countries......Page 544
Relevant Websites......Page 545
Urban Passenger Transport......Page 546
Urban Freight Transport......Page 548
Relevant Websites......Page 550
Transportation and Land-Use Interaction......Page 551
Theories and Models......Page 552
Lessons Learned and Future Prospects......Page 555
Relevant Websites......Page 556
Why Geographers Are Interested in Travel-Writing......Page 557
Travel and Travel-Writing Define......Page 558
Politics of Travel......Page 560
Conclusion......Page 563
Further Reading......Page 564
Trend Surfaces and Their Residuals......Page 565
Some Statistical Issues......Page 567
Relevant Websites......Page 569
Convergence......Page 570
Divergence......Page 571
Further Reading......Page 572
Relevant Websites......Page 573
Introduction......Page 574
Orientalism, Geography, and the Tropics......Page 575
Tropicality, Regional Geography, and ‘Development’......Page 576
The Degeneration of Tropical Geography......Page 577
Conclusions......Page 578
Further Reading......Page 579
Tuan, Y.-F. (1930–)......Page 580
Further Reading......Page 581