In a Class of Their Own : A Detailed Examination of Avian Forms and Functions, 1e

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
1: Origin and Evolution of Birds
	1.1 Early Ideas About the Origin and Evolution of Birds
	1.2 Current Views About the Origin and Evolution of Birds
	1.3 Early Events in the Evolution of Birds
	Box 1.1 Unidirectional Lung Ventilation
	1.4 The Age of Dinosaurs
	Box 1.2 A New Dinosaur Family Tree?
	1.5 Theropods: Coelurosaurs
	1.6 Theropod Locomotion
	Box 1.3 Avian Forelimb Digits
	1.7 Bones and Growth Rates
	Box 1.4 Evolution of Endothermy
	1.8 Body Size
	1.9 Limb Length
	1.10 Digestive and Reproductive Systems
	1.11 Avian and Non-avian Theropods
	1.12 The First Birds
	Box 1.5 Loss of Teeth
	Box 1.6 Evolution of the Avian Sternum
	Box 1.7 Flying Ability of Mesozoic Birds
	1.13 Ornithuromorpha (Also Known as Euornithes)
	1.14 Neornithines
	Box 1.8 The K/Pg Mass Extinction
	Box 1.9 Avian Tree of Life
	Box 1.10 Palaeognathae Evolution
	Box 1.11 Galloanseres Phylogeny
	Box 1.12 Limits to Phylogenetic Resolution
	Box 1.13 Who Survived the End-Cretaceous Mass Extinction and Why?
	Box 1.14 Strisores Phylogeny
	1.15 Diversification After the K-Pg Mass Extinction
	1.16 Passeriformes
	Box 1.15 Avian Interchange Across the Panama Land Bridge
	1.17 Present-Day Birds
	Box 1.16 Zoogeographical Realms
	Box 1.17 Seabirds
	References
2: Skeleton and Skeletal Muscles
	2.1 Bone Structure
	Box 2.1 Bone Microstructure
	2.2 Evolution of the Avian Skeleton
	2.3 Pectoral Girdle and Forelimb
	2.4 Pelvic Girdle and Hindlimb
	Box 2.2 Which Digits Were Lost?
	Box 2.3 Evolution of the Avian Wrist
	Box 2.4 Avian Humeri
	2.5 Axial Skeleton
		2.5.1 Skull
		2.5.2 Teeth
		2.5.3 Cranial Kinesis
	Box 2.5 Mandibular Bowing of Pelicans
	Box 2.6 Darwin´s Finches, Adaptive Radiation, and Evolution
	Box 2.7 Hawaiian Honeycreepers
		2.5.4 Sternum and Rib Cage
	Box 2.8 Bony Cranial Protuberances of Birds
	Box 2.9 Rapid Adaptive Evolution of Bill Length
		2.5.5 Vertebral Column
	Box 2.10 Variation in Avian Sternums
	Box 2.11 Neck Length and Body Mass: Birds vs. Mammals
		2.5.6 Vertebral Column-Tail
	2.6 Avian Skeletal Muscles
		2.6.1 Flexibility in Muscle Mass
	Box 2.12 Pygostyle Morphology
		2.6.2 Fiber Types
	Box 2.13 Skeletal Muscle Anatomy and Function
	Box 2.14 Superfast Muscles of Some Manakins
		2.6.3 Locomotion
	Box 2.15 Myosin Isoforms
	Box 2.16 Divided Pectoralis of Soaring Birds
		2.6.4 Feeding
	Box 2.17 Marvelous Tails (and Rectricial Bulbs) of Marvelous Spatuletails
		2.6.5 Extrinsic Eyeball Muscles
		2.6.6 Vocalizing
		2.6.7 Thermoregulation
	Box 2.18 Woodpecker Drumming Muscles
	References
3: Integument
	3.1 Skin: Structure and Function
	Box 3.1 Evolution of Avian Skin
	3.2 Unfeathered and Colored Skin
	3.3 Specialized Epidermal Structures
	3.4 Cutaneous Nervous System
	3.5 Podotheca
	3.6 Spurs
	3.7 Claws
	3.8 Rhamphotheca
	Box 3.2 Keratins
	3.9 Integument Glands
	Box 3.3 Birds ``Feel´´ Their Prey Under the Sand
	3.10 Feather Evolution
	Box 3.4 Possible Sexual and Social Functions of Female Uropygial Gland Secretions
	Box 3.5 Cosmetic Coloration
	Box 3.6 Feather Protein Evolution
	3.11 Evolution of Feather Function
	Box 3.7 Structure and Properties of the Primary Flight Feathers of Birds
	Box 3.8 A New Mechanism of Growth: Genes and Proteins
	3.12 Feather Types and Functions
	Box 3.9 Feathers from the Mid-Cretaceous
	Box 3.10 Water and Ice Repellency of Contour Feathers
	Box 3.11 Shape and Strength Recovery of Feathers
	3.13 Pterylae and Apteria
	3.14 Feather Color: Pigments
	3.15 Feather Structural Colors
	3.16 Iridescent Structural Color: Thin-Film Interference
	3.17 Structural Color: Thin- and Multi-film Interference
	3.18 Structural Colors Produced by Photonic Structures
	3.19 Feather Color: Pigment Plus Structure
	Box 3.12 Positioning Skin Follicles
	3.20 Feather Parasites
	Box 3.13 Male vs. Female Plumage Coloration
	3.21 Preening and Other Defenses against Ectoparasites
	References
4: Nervous System
	4.1 Cognitive Abilities
	Box 4.1 Examples of avian cognitive abilities
	4.2 Avian Nervous System
	4.3 Avian Brains
	Box 4.2 The avian hippocampus
	Box 4.3 Avian mesolimbic reward system and social behavior network
	Box 4.4 Avian brain size evolution
	4.4 Avian Sleep
	Box 4.5 Neuronal densities in the avian brain and cognition
	Box 4.6 Brain size and latitude
	Box 4.7 Tool use by New Caledonian Crows
	4.5 Sense Organs: General Receptors
	Box 4.8 Parrots vs. primates
	4.6 Olfaction
	Box 4.9 Pain in birds
	Box 4.10 Pressure sensory mechanism for prey detection
	4.7 Taste
	4.8 Vision
	Box 4.11 Sugar tastes sweet to hummingbirds and songbirds
	Box 4.12 Scleral (or sclerotic) rings
	Box 4.13 Stereopsis
	4.9 Avian Temporal Visual Acuity
	4.10 Hearing
	Box 4.14 Phototransduction
	4.11 Static and Dynamic Equilibrium
	4.12 Lumbosacral Organ
	4.13 Hearing Ranges of Birds
	4.14 Sound Localization
	4.15 Hearing Underwater
	4.16 Echolocation
	Box 4.15 Intracranial cavities and directional hearing
	Box 4.16 Oilbirds
	References
5: Locating, Obtaining, Ingesting, and Digesting Food
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Avian Diets
		5.2.1 Insectivores
	Box 5.1 Foraging behavior of waterfowl
	Box 5.2 Kleptoparasites
		5.2.2 Invertivores
	Box 5.3 Ecosystem services provided by avian insectivores
		5.2.3 Frugivores
		5.2.4 Granivores
		5.2.5 Carnivores
	Box 5.4 How do woodpeckers avoid head impact injury?
	Box 5.5 Flush-pursuit foragers
	Box 5.6 Surface tension transport
		5.2.6 Scavengers
		5.2.7 Nectarivores
	Box 5.7 Fruit color and avian fruit selection
	Box 5.8 Birds as seed dispersers
	Box 5.9 Ballistic food transport
		5.2.8 Herbivores
		5.2.9 Omnivores
	Box 5.10 Ingesting indigestible plastics
	Box 5.11 Nonergodic hunting by raptors
	5.3 Group or Flock Foraging
	5.4 Interclass Cooperative Feeding
	5.5 Avian Digestive System
		5.5.1 Bird Bills
		5.5.2 Oral Cavity
	Box 5.12 Use of surface features as foraging cues for seabirds
	Box 5.13 Riblets reduce drag for skimmers
	Box 5.14 Kicking Secretarybirds
	Box 5.15 Fish eating and refraction
	Box 5.16 Prey dropping
		5.5.3 Esophagus
	Box 5.17 Arthropods and pollen in the diet of nectarivorous birds
		5.5.4 Two-Part Stomach
	Box 5.18 Birds as pollinators
	Box 5.19 Nectar robbers
		5.5.5 Small Intestine
	Box 5.20 Evolution of the avian digestive system
		5.5.6 Liver and Pancreas
		5.5.7 Absorption
		5.5.8 Ceca
	Box 5.21 Evolution of bird bills
		5.5.9 Large Intestine
		5.5.10 Cloaca
	5.6 Excretion
	5.7 Retention Time and Digestibility
	5.8 Phenotypic Plasticity
	Box 5.22 Hummingbird hyoids
	5.9 Food Intake Regulation
	Box 5.23 Stomach oils of Procellariiform seabirds
	Box 5.24 Preservation of stomach contents of incubating King Penguins
	Box 5.25 Avian gastroliths
	Box 5.26 Feather eating by loons and grebes
	Box 5.27 Avian geophagy
	Box 5.28 A missing enzyme
	Box 5.29 Avian blood glucose levels
	Box 5.30 The avian liver
	Box 5.31 Avian gut microbiota
	References
6: Cardiovascular and Immune Systems
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Avian Blood
	6.3 Hematocrits
	Box 6.1 Variation in the Size and Shape of Avian Erythrocytes
	Box 6.2 Erythropoiesis
	6.4 Hemoglobin
	Box 6.3 Avian Red Blood Cells
		Box 6.4 Partial Pressure
	Box 6.5 Bar-Headed Geese
	6.5 CO2 Transport in the Blood
	6.6 Flight at High Altitudes
	6.7 Embryonic Respiration
	6.8 Diving Birds
	6.9 Thrombocytes
	6.10 White Blood Cells
	6.11 Avian Immune System
	Box 6.6 Avian Mast Cells
	6.12 Significance of the Avian Immune System
	6.13 Blood Parasites
	Box 6.7 Antibody Diversity
	6.14 Blood Plasma
	6.15 Avian Heart
	Box 6.8 Heart of an Acrobatic Bird
	6.16 Blood Vessels
	Box 6.9 Human vs. Bird Electrocardiograms
	6.17 Blood Pressure and Blood Flow
	References
7: Respiration
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 The Avian Respiratory System
	Box 7.1 Procellariiform Birds: The ``Tube Knows´´ Air Speed?
		7.2.1 Nasal Cavities
		7.2.2 Larynx
		7.2.3 Trachea
		7.2.4 Lungs and Air Sacs
	7.3 Ventilation
	7.4 Metabolic Cost of Breathing
	7.5 Ventilation During Locomotion
	Box 7.2 Evolution of Avian Air Sacs
	Box 7.3 Uncinate Processes and Avian Metabolic Rates
	7.6 Movement of Air Through the Avian Respiratory System
	Box 7.4 Loopy Network Model of Bird Lungs
	7.7 Exchange of Gases
	7.8 Control of Ventilation
	References
8: Endocrine System
	8.1 Endocrine Gland Hormones
	8.2 Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland
		8.2.1 Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
		8.2.2 Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide
		8.2.3 Prolactin
		8.2.4 Gonadotropin-Inhibitory Hormone
	Box 8.1 Testosterone Levels in Sex-Role Reversed Species of Birds
		8.2.5 Growth Hormone
		8.2.6 Mesotocin and Arginine Vasotocin
	Box 8.2 Crop Milk
	8.3 Thyroid Gland and Hormones
	Box 8.3 IGF-1 and Plumage Traits
	8.4 Thyroid Hormones and Reproduction
	8.5 Thyroid Hormones: Embryonic Development and Hatching
	8.6 Thyroid Hormones and Migration
	8.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Parathyroid and Ultimobranchial Glands
	8.8 Adrenal Glands
	Box 8.4 Thyroid Hormones and Molt
	8.9 Hormones Important in Avian Feeding Behavior
	8.10 Gastrointestinal Hormones and Digestion
	8.11 Adipokines
	8.12 Pancreas
	References
9: Urinary System, Salt Glands, and Osmoregulation
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Intake of Water and Solutes
	9.3 Water Loss
		9.3.1 Cutaneous Water Loss
		9.3.2 Respiratory Water Loss
	Box 9.1 Water Availability at Migratory Stopover Sites
	9.4 Water Balance and Long-Distance Flight
	Box 9.2 Feather Reflectivity and Evaporative Water Loss
	9.5 Kidney Structure and Function
	Box 9.3 Climate Change and Desert Songbirds
	9.6 Role of Cloaca and Lower Intestine in Osmoregulation
	9.7 Nectar-Feeding Birds
	9.8 Nitrogenous Waste
	9.9 Salt Gland Structure and Function
	Box 9.4 Are Birds Strictly Urocotelic?
	References
10: Energy Balance and Thermoregulation
	10.1 Evolution of Endothermy
	10.2 Intraspecific Variation in BMR
	10.3 Relationships Between BMR, Age, and Survival
	10.4 Fitness-Related Effects of Individual Variation in BMR
	10.5 Interspecific Variation in Basal Metabolic Rates
	10.6 Latitude, Altitude, and Body Size
	10.7 Phenotypic Flexibility in Avian Metabolic Rates
	Box 10.1 Acclimatization vs. Acclimation
	Box 10.2 Seasonal Acclimatization by American Goldfinches
	10.8 Metabolic Rates and Migration
	Box 10.3 Heat Production by Red Blood Cell Mitochondria
	Box 10.4 Fats and Fat Metabolism
	Box 10.5 Fruit as a Source of Antioxidants
	Box 10.6 How Do Geolocators Work?
	Box 10.7 Conserving Energy at Stopover Sites
	10.9 Thermoregulation
	10.10 Responses to Temperatures Above and Below Avian Thermoneutral Zones
	Box 10.8 Metabolic Rates and Lower Critical Temperatures on Land and Water
	10.11 Regulating Heat Gain and Loss
	Box 10.9 Huddling by Emperor Penguins
	10.12 Avian Hyperthermia
	Box 10.10 Potential Roles of Activity and Eating on Reducing Thermoregulatory Costs
	Box 10.11 Non-shivering Thermogenesis in Mammals
	10.13 Avian Hypothermia
	Box 10.12 Ptiloerection, Shivering, and Body Temperature
	Box 10.13 Hypocapnia and Respiratory Alkalosis
	10.14 Controlled, Facultative Hypothermia: Torpor
	Box 10.14 Why Do Some Birds Have Bald Heads?
	10.15 Controlled, Facultative Hypothermia: Hibernation
	Box 10.15 Summer Temperature and Bill Surface Area of Sparrows
	Box 10.16 Extreme Hyperthermia Tolerance of Red-Billed Queleas
	Box 10.17 A Cost of Being Cool
	Box 10.18 Fat Accumulation in Wintering Songbirds
	References
11: Avian Locomotion: Flying, Running, Walking, Climbing, Swimming, and Diving
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Evolution of Flight
	Box 11.1 Evolution of the Avian Wing
	Box 11.2 Four-Winged Dromaeosaurids
	Box 11.3 Solnhofen and Jehol Paleoenvironments
	Box 11.4 Proto-Wingbeat Long Jumping
	11.3 Flying
		11.3.1 Lift
	Box 11.5 Wing (and Feather) Morphing
	Box 11.6 Alulas in the Fossil Record
	Box 11.7 Interspecific Differences in Alulae
		11.3.2 Thrust
		11.3.3 Drag
	Box 11.8 Wing Color, Drag, and Flight Performance
		11.3.4 Wing Shape
	Box 11.9 Emarginate Outer Primary Feathers
		11.3.5 Wing Loading
		11.3.6 Banking
	11.4 Flying in Cluttered Habitats
	11.5 Flight Styles
		11.5.1 Gliding and Soaring
	Box 11.10 Wind-Drift Circling Soaring by Great Frigatebirds
		11.5.2 Dynamic Soaring
		11.5.3 Sea-Anchor Soaring
		11.5.4 Wave-Meandering Wing-Sailing
		11.5.5 Wave-Slope Soaring
		11.5.6 Flapping Flight
		11.5.7 Flap-Bounding and Flap-Gliding
	11.6 Flight Speed
	11.7 Hovering
	11.8 The Role of Bird Tails in Flight
	11.9 Maneuverability
	11.10 Take-Off and Landing
	Box 11.11 Age-Specific Decline in Take-Off Performance
	Box 11.12 Using Drag to Take Flight
	Box 11.13 Using Lift as a Brake
	Box 11.14 Whiffling
	11.11 Energetics of Flight
	Box 11.15 Flying Generates Heat
	Box 11.16 Contorted Soaring
	11.12 Loss of Flight
	11.13 Nonflying Modes of Locomotion
		11.13.1 Walking, Running, Hopping, and Waddling
	Box 11.17 Body Mass and Bipedal Locomotion
	Box 11.18 Running Shorebirds
		11.13.2 Climbing
		11.13.3 Aquatic Locomotion
	Box 11.19 Unusual Feathers of Cormorants
	Box 11.20 Formation Swimming by Ducklings
	References
12: Sound and Vocal Production and Function
	12.1 Introduction
	Box 12.1 Terminology
	Box 12.2 Anthropogenic Noise and Bird Vocalizations
	12.2 Sound Production: Nonvocal
	Box 12.3 Woodpecker Drumming
	12.3 Sound Production: Vocal
	12.4 Two Sound Sources
	12.5 Syringeal Membrane Oscillation
	12.6 Source-Filter Supra-Syringeal Structures
	12.7 Vocalizing and Breathing
	12.8 Sexual Dimorphism in Syringeal Anatomy
	12.9 Vocal Sacs and Closed-Beak Vocalizations
	Box 12.4 Tracheal Elongation
	12.10 Central Motor Control of Song
	12.11 Seasonality of Song
	12.12 Sex Differences in the Song Control System
	12.13 Classification of Vocalizations
	Box 12.5 Locatability
	Box 12.6 Distress Calls
	12.14 Referential Calls
	12.15 Learning Calls
	12.16 Variation Among Species in the Size of Call Repertoires
	Box 12.7 Geographic Variation in Parrot Contact Calls
	12.17 Functions of Bird Song
	12.18 Structure and Function of Female Songs
	12.19 Song Learning by Females
	12.20 Geographical Variation in Songs
	Box 12.8 Latitudinal Variation in Bird Song
	12.21 Song Repertoires
	12.22 Energetic Cost of Singing
	12.23 Song Learning by Males
	12.24 Why Learn Songs?
	12.25 Vocal Mimicry
	12.26 Duetting
	12.27 Group Choruses
	12.28 Male Cooperative Courtship
	Appendix: Non-song Call Repertoires Among Several Different Taxa and Species of Birds
	References
13: Migration
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Origin of Avian Migration
	13.3 Migratory and Sedentary Behaviors of Present-Day Birds
	Box 13.1 Origin of Migratory Species and Populations
	13.4 Migration Distance, Routes, and Heights
	Box 13.2 Effect of Climate Change on Shorebird Nest Predation
	Box 13.3 Afro-Palearctic Landbird Migration
	13.5 Differential and Partial Migration
	Box 13.4 Gliding Speed of Migrating Birds that Rely on Soaring
	13.6 Altitudinal Migration
	13.7 Loop and Figure-Eight Migration Routes
	13.8 Reverse Migration
	Box 13.5 Obligate Versus Facultative Migration
	13.9 Stopover Sites
	13.10 Migration in the Neotropics
	13.11 Seasonal Differences
	13.12 Timing of Migration
	13.13 Protandry
	13.14 Diurnal Versus Nocturnal Migration
	Box 13.6 Hyperthermia and Flight Duration of a Short-Distance Migrant
	Box 13.7 Bats Preying on Migrating Birds
	13.15 Bird Migration and Climate Change
	Box 13.8 Nocturnal Departure Times
	References
14: Navigation and Orientation
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Compass Orientation: Star Compass
	14.3 Compass Orientation: Sun Compass
	14.4 Compass Orientation: Polarized Light
	14.5 Compass Orientation: Magnetic Cues
	Box 14.1 Radical-Pair Magnetoreception
	14.6 Navigation
	Box 14.2 Source of the Ophthalmic Branch Magnetic Sense
	14.7 True Navigation
	Box 14.3 Eurasian Reed Warblers Used Magnetic Declination to Determine Longitude
	14.8 Long- and Short-Range Navigation
	Box 14.4 Avian Compass Systems and Calibration
	14.9 Noncompass Orientation
	14.10 Navigation and the Hippocampus
	14.11 Topographical Features and Landmarks
	14.12 Olfactory Navigation
	14.13 Possible Use of Infrasounds
	Box 14.5 Olfactory Navigation by Seabirds
	Box 14.6 Using Infrasounds to Avoid Tornadoes?
	References
15: Mating Systems
	Box 15.1 Evolution of Anisogamy
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Mating Systems of Avian Ancestors
	15.3 Avian Mating Systems
	Box 15.2 Male Mating Coalitions
	15.4 Evolution of Avian Mating Systems
	Box 15.3 Avian Sex Ratios
	Box 15.4 Floaters
	15.5 Sexual Conflict and Cooperation
	15.6 Social Monogamy, Genetic Monogamy, and Genetic Promiscuity
	Box 15.5 Sexual Conflict and Avian Genitalia
	Box 15.6 Parental Conflict in Birds
	Box 15.7 Avian Generation Lengths
	Box 15.8 Males Feeding Mates
	Box 15.9 Male Paternity Assurance Behavior
	Box 15.10 MHC Genes and Avian Immunity
	15.7 Polygyny
	Box 15.11 Adaptive Sleep Loss in Polygynous Pectoral Sandpipers
	Box 15.12 Leks and Kin Selection
	Box 15.13 Bills as Daggers
	15.8 Polyandry
	Box 15.14 Diverse Plumages and Mating Strategies of Male Ruffs
	15.9 Polygynandry
	15.10 Cooperative Breeding
	15.11 Non-Kin Cooperative Breeding
	15.12 Types of Parental Care Provided by Non-Breeding Helpers
	15.13 Female Mate Choice and Sexual Selection
	Box 15.15 Developmental Stress Hypothesis
	Box 15.16 Reactive Oxygen and Antioxidants
	Box 15.17 Melanin-Based Plumage and Antioxidant Capacity
	15.14 Male Mate Choice
	References
16: Avian Reproduction: Timing, Anatomy, and Eggs
	16.1 Timing of Reproduction
	Box 16.1 Photopic and Non-photopic Regulation of Bird Reproduction
	16.2 Reproductive Anatomy of Male Birds
	Box 16.2 Testis Asymmetry
		16.2.1 Sperm Production and Transport
		16.2.2 Characteristics of Sperm
		16.2.3 Testosterone and Its Effects
	16.3 Ovaries
	16.4 Egg Production
	Box 16.3 Testosterone Increases Availability of Carotenoids
	16.5 Copulation
	Box 16.4 Egg Antimicrobial Defenses
	16.6 Sperm-Storage Tubules
	16.7 Fertilization
	16.8 Sex Determination
	Box 16.5 Seminal Fluid
	16.9 Oviduct Structure and Function
	16.10 Shell Membranes and the Eggshell
	16.11 Avian Eggs
	Box 16.6 Where Do Females Get Calcium for Eggshells?
		16.11.1 Egg Coloration
		16.11.2 Egg Shape
	16.12 Egg-Laying
	Box 16.7 Geographic Variation in Egg Size of New World Flycatchers
	16.13 Costs of Egg Production
	Box 16.8 Decreasing Egg Size with Decreasing Food Availability
	Box 16.9 Extreme Intraclutch Egg-size Dimorphism in Eudyptes Penguins
	Box 16.10 Dirty Eggs = Safer Eggs
	Box 16.11 Stable Isotopes and Egg Nutrients
	References
17: Avian Reproduction: Nests and Nest Sites
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Evolution of Nests
	Box 17.1 Camouflage and Ground-Nesting Birds
	17.3 Nest Functions
		17.3.1 Structural Support
	Box 17.2 Evolution of Nests and Incubation Behavior
	Box 17.3 Evolution of Open-Cup Nests
		17.3.2 Protection
		17.3.3 Suitable Microclimate
	Box 17.4 Open vs. Enclosed Nests
	Box 17.5 Underground Nesting by Megapodes
	Box 17.6 Diversity and Distribution of Tree-Cavity-Nesting Birds
		17.3.4 Phenotypic Signal
	17.4 Nest-Site Selection and Predation
	Box 17.7 Nest Neighbors that Increase Nesting Success
	17.5 Nest Types
	Box 17.8 Communal Nests
	Box 17.9 Nest Complexity and the Avian Cerebellum
	Box 17.10 Cavity-Nest Webs
	17.6 Nest Materials
	17.7 Nest Construction: Innate or Learned?
	Box 17.11 Adherent Nests
	17.8 Constructing Nests: Females, Males, or Both?
	Box 17.12 Nest ``Decorations´´
	Box 17.13 Edible-nest (or White-nest) Swiftlets
	Box 17.14 Green Incubation
	17.9 Costs of Nest Building
	17.10 Nest Reuse by Cavity-Nesting Species
	17.11 Nest Parasites
	References
18: Avian Reproduction: Clutch Sizes, Incubation, and Hatching
	18.1 Evolution of Clutch Sizes
	Box 18.1 Avian Survival
	Box 18.2 Clutch Sizes of Cavity-Excavating Birds
	18.2 Latitudinal Variation in Clutch Sizes
	18.3 Variation in Clutch Size Within Species and Populations
	18.4 Predation and Clutch Sizes
	18.5 Seasonal Variation in Clutch Sizes
	18.6 Evolution of Nest Attendance/Incubation
	18.7 Incubation
	Box 18.3 The Bright Incubate at Night
	18.8 Onset of Incubation
	18.9 Costs of Incubation
	Box 18.4 Prolactin and Parental Care
	18.10 Incubation Periods
	Box 18.5 Incubation and Microbial Growth on Eggshells
	Box 18.6 The Long Incubation Periods of Alcids, Penguins, and Other Oceanic Species of Birds
	Box 18.7 Why Do Some Birds Cover Eggs and Nests?
	18.11 Development of Avian Embryos
	Box 18.8 Hamburger-Hamilton Stages
	18.12 Nutrition and Growth of Developing Embryos
	Box 18.9 As the Egg Turns
	18.13 Metabolic Rates of Avian Embryos
	18.14 Hatching
	References
19: Avian Reproduction: Post-hatching Parental Care and Brood Parasitism
	19.1 Introduction
	Box 19.1 Parental Cooperation in Caring for Young
	19.2 Post-hatching Parental Care
	Box 19.2 Chick Ornamentation
	19.3 Begging Behavior of Young Birds
	Box 19.3 Dishonest Begging by Nestlings
	19.4 Feeding Nestlings
	19.5 Fecal Sacs
	19.6 Defending Eggs and Young
	19.7 Sibling Cooperation and Competition
	19.8 Departure from Nests
	Box 19.4 Time of Day When Young Fledge
	Box 19.5 Effects of Predation Rate, Nest Height, and Latitude on Fledging Age
	19.9 Parental Care After Young Leave Nests
	19.10 Natal Dispersal
	Box 19.6 Moonlight Triggers Dispersal from Parental Territories
	19.11 Learning by Young Birds
	19.12 Brood Parasitism
		19.12.1 Facultative Brood Parasitism
	Box 19.7 Kin Selection and Conspecific Brood Parasitism
		19.12.2 Facultative (Conspecific) Brood Parasitism: Host Defenses and Parasite Tactics
		19.12.3 Obligate Brood Parasitism
	Box 19.8 Carry-Over Effects of Brood Parasitism
		19.12.4 Obligate Brood Parasitism: Pre-laying Adaptations of Hosts and Parasites
		19.12.5 Obligate Brood Parasitism: Laying and Post-laying Adaptations of Hosts and Parasites
		19.12.6 Obligate Brood Parasitism: Post-hatching Adaptations of Hosts and Parasites
	References