Herbal Biomolecules in Healthcare Applications

Front Cover
Herbal Biomolecules in Healthcare Applications
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
Foreword by Bharat B. Aggarwal
Foreword by Satyajit D. Sarker
Foreword by Rob Verpoorte
	References
Preface
1 Introduction to herbal biomolecules
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Herbal biomolecules
		1.2.1 Alkaloids
		1.2.2 Glycosides
		1.2.3 Terpinoids
		1.2.4 Volatile oils or essential oils
		1.2.5 Flavonoids
		1.2.6 Coumarins
		1.2.7 Carbohydrates
	1.3 Therapeutic activities of herbal biomolecules
		1.3.1 Anticancer activity of herbal biomolecules
		1.3.2 Antidiabetic activity of herbal biomolecules
		1.3.3 Immunomodulatory effect of herbal biomolecules
		1.3.4 Wound healing property of herbal biomolecules
		1.3.5 Antimicrobial activity of herbal biomolecules
	1.4 Standardization of herbal biomolecules
	1.5 Regulatory consideration
	1.6 Future prospective and challenges
	References
	Further reading
2 Extraction of herbal biomolecules
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Conventional extraction techniques
		2.2.1 Maceration
		2.2.2 Percolation
		2.2.3 Soxhlet extraction
		2.2.4 Miscellaneous conventional extraction techniques
			2.2.4.1 Reflux extraction
			2.2.4.2 Infusion and decoction
	2.3 Modern Methods of Extraction
		2.3.1 Pressurized or accelerated solvent extraction
		2.3.2 Microwave-assisted extraction
		2.3.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
		2.3.4 Supercritical fluid extraction
		2.3.5 Enzyme-assisted extraction
		2.3.6 Pulsed electric field extraction
	2.4 Conclusion
	References
3 Purification of herbal biomolecules
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Purification of herbal biomolecules
	3.3 Volatile and nonvolatile compound extraction from herbal plant extract and its identification
	3.4 Bioassay-guided isolation
	3.5 Solvent–solvent extraction method by using separating funnel for the bioactive compound isolation
	3.6 Identification of functional groups in crude extracts using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
	3.7 Medium-pressure liquid chromatography
	3.8 LC-ESI-MS/MS QTOF analysis or identification of bioactive compound
	3.9 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of bioactive compounds present in plants extracts
	3.10 Preparative high-performance liquid chromatography analysis
	3.11 Identification and structure elucidation by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
	3.12 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
4 Chemistry of herbal biomolecules
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Primary metabolite-based biomolecules
		4.2.1 Carbohydrates
			4.2.1.1 Classification of carbohydrates
		4.2.2 Xylans and pectins
		4.2.3 Oils
			4.2.3.1 Essential oils
			4.2.3.2 Nonessential oils
		4.2.4 Resins and balsams
			4.2.4.1 Resin constituents
			4.2.4.2 Types of resins
		4.2.5 Plant hormones and growth factors
			4.2.5.1 Classification and their uses
	4.3 Secondary metabolites
		4.3.1 Alkaloids
			4.3.1.1 Classification established upon the molecular precursor and biological origin
			4.3.1.2 Classification based upon the structure of the ring
		4.3.2 Glycosides
			4.3.2.1 Phenolic glycosides
			4.3.2.2 Coumarin glycosides and chromone glycosides
			4.3.2.3 Flavonoid glycosides
			4.3.2.4 Anthraquinone glycosides
			4.3.2.5 Saponin glycosides
	4.4 Conclusion
	References
5 Variation of biomolecules in plant species
	5.1 Introduction—primary and secondary metabolites
	5.2 Variations of biomolecules in the herbal healthcare context
	5.3 Factors affecting the variation of biomolecules in plant species
		5.3.1 Between the species
		5.3.2 Within a species
		5.3.3 Growing locations and the environment
		5.3.4 Processing and storage conditions
		5.3.5 Plant ages and tissue types and others
	5.4 Quantifying the variation of biomolecules in plant species
	5.5 Variation of primary metabolites in plant species
		5.5.1 Deoxyribonucleic acid variation in plant species, subspecies, and cultivars
		5.5.2 Protein variation
		5.5.3 Carbohydrate variation
		5.5.4 Lipid variation
	5.6 Variation in secondary metabolites of plant species
		5.6.1 Alkaloids
		5.6.2 Terpenes (isoprenoids or terpenoids)
		5.6.3 Phenolics (polyphenolic compounds)
		5.6.4 Glycosides
		5.6.5 Vitamins and minerals and others
	5.7 OMICs technology solution for the variation of biomolecules
	5.8 Conclusion and prospects
	Acknowledgments
	References
6 Phytopharmacology of herbal biomolecules
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Emerging need for phytotherapy
	6.3 Herbal biomolecules for central nervous system ailments
		6.3.1 Curcumin
			6.3.1.1 Ginklolides
			6.3.1.2 Resveratrol
	6.4 Plants’ biomolecules for cardiovascular ailments
		6.4.1 Digitalis
	6.5 Antimicrobial
	6.6 Plant-based antiinflammatory biomolecules
	6.7 Herbal biomolecules as anticancer agents
		6.7.1 Vinca alkaloids
		6.7.2 Taxanes
		6.7.3 Campothecin derivatives
			6.7.3.1 Cephalotaxine derivatives
		6.7.4 Colchicine
	6.8 Herbal biomolecules as hepatoprotectives
		6.8.1 Silymarin
		6.8.2 Glycyrrhizin
	6.9 Conclusion
	References
7 Analytical characterization of herbal biomolecules
	7.1 Introduction to analytical techniques for herbal biomolecules
	7.2 Spectroscopic techniques
		7.2.1 Ultraviolet-visible, fluorescence, polarimetry, and circular dichroism
		7.2.2 Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy
		7.2.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance
		7.2.4 Single crystal X-ray diffraction
			7.2.4.1 Introduction
			7.2.4.2 Crystal systems, unit cells, and bravais lattices
			7.2.4.3 Symmetry elements, symmetry operations and symmetry notions
			7.2.4.4 Crystal classes (point groups)
			7.2.4.5 Space groups
			7.2.4.6 Miller indices and bragg’s law
			7.2.4.7 Generating data and solving crystal structures
			7.2.4.8 More examples
	7.3 Mass spectrometric techniques
		7.3.1 Introduction
		7.3.2 Mass spectrometry and high-resolution mass spectrometry
		7.3.3 Recent development in ambient desorption ionization
	7.4 Chromatography
	7.5 Biochemical methods
		7.5.1 Immunoassays
		7.5.2 Gel electrophoresis and capillary electrophoresis
		7.5.3 Sequencing nucleic acids
		7.5.4 Sequencing proteins
	7.6 Combining several techniques to characterize molecules
	7.7 Conclusion and prospects
	Acknowledgment
	References
8 Bioactivity characterization of herbal molecules
	8.1 Antimicrobial uses of herbal compounds for dental disease
		8.1.1 Medicinal plants extracts
		8.1.2 Herbal mouthwash
		8.1.3 Herbal chewing
		8.1.4 Medicinal plants and nanoparticles in dental care
		8.1.5 Other dental treatments with medicinal plants
	8.2 Antimicrobial uses of herbal compounds for respiratory infectious diseases
	8.3 Antimicrobial uses of herbal compounds for gastrointestinal diseases
	8.4 Identification and characterization of bioactivity of biomolecules of herbal origin with analgesic and antiinflammatory...
	8.5 Machine learning in search for new herbal molecules origin with potential application for drugs development
		8.5.1 Introduction
		8.5.2 Machine learning
		8.5.3 Machine learning in discovery of new drugs
		8.5.4 Deep generative modeling in discovery of new drugs
		8.5.5 Virtual screening in discovery of new drugs
		8.5.6 Herbal molecules origin in discovery of new drugs
	References
9 Herbal carbohydrates in healthcare
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Material and methods
		9.2.1 Admission criteria
		9.2.2 Exclusion criteria
	9.3 Carbohydrates—functions and construction
		9.3.1 Structures
			9.3.1.1 Types of carbohydrates
	9.4 Carbohydrates as a pharmacological raw material
	9.5 Functionality
	9.6 Clinical Significance
	9.7 Concusion
	References
10 Herbal oil in healthcare
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Sources
		10.2.1 Citrus oil
		10.2.2 Rosemary essential oil
		10.2.3 Oregano oil
		10.2.4 Basil essential oil
		10.2.5 Mentha essential oil
	10.3 Chemical composition
		10.3.1 Phenylpropanoids
		10.3.2 Terpenoids
		10.3.3 Aromatic compunds
	10.4 Therapeutic potential
		10.4.1 Antimicrobial
		10.4.2 Antioxidant
		10.4.3 Anticarcinogenic
		10.4.4 Traditional uses of herbal oils
	10.5 Modern trends of herbal oils
		10.5.1 Application in aromatherapy
	10.6 Conclusion and future perspective
	Acknowledgment
	References
11 Essential oils and their bioactive molecules in healthcare
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Sources of essential oils
	11.3 Chemistry of essential oils
	11.4 Methods of extraction and analysis of essential oils
	11.5 Biological activities of essential oils
		11.5.1 Anti-inflammatory biomolecules
		11.5.2 Antimicrobial biomolecules
		11.5.3 Antiparasitic and anthelminthic biomolecules
		11.5.4 Antimalarial biomolecules
		11.5.5 Anticancer and antiproliferative biomolecules
	11.6 Trade and commercial applications of essential oils in healthcare
	11.7 Risks and dangers of essential oils
	11.8 Conclusion
	References
12 Herbal glycosides in healthcare
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Anthraquinone glycosides
		12.2.1 Pharmacological activities
		12.2.2 Toxicity
	12.3 Cardiac glycosides
		12.3.1 Pharmacological activities
		12.3.2 Toxicity
	12.4 Coumarin glycosides
		12.4.1 Pharmacological activities
		12.4.2 Toxicity
	12.5 Cyanogenic glycosides
		12.5.1 Pharmacological activities
		12.5.2 Toxicity
	12.6 Flavonoid glycosides
		12.6.1 Flavonols
		12.6.2 Flavones
		12.6.3 Flavanones
		12.6.4 Isoflavones
		12.6.5 Anthocyanins and anthocyanidins
		12.6.6 Flavonolignanes
		12.6.7 Chalcones
		12.6.8 Biflavonoids
			12.6.8.1 Pharmacological activities
		12.6.9 Toxicity
	12.7 Glucosinolates
		12.7.1 Pharmacological activities
		12.7.2 Toxicity
	12.8 Phenol glycosides
		12.8.1 Pharmacological activities
		12.8.2 Toxicity
	12.9 Saponin glycosides
		12.9.1 Pharmacological activities
		12.9.2 Toxicity
	References
13 Herbal alkaloids in healthcare
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Structure, characterization and sources of alkaloids
		13.2.1 Biosynthesis and synthesis of alkaloids
		13.2.2 Extraction of alkaloids
	13.3 Relationship of alkaloids structure and chemistry on pharmacological properties
	13.4 Toxic effect of herbal alkaloids and relation to healthcare
	13.5 How herbal alkaloids are used to combat chronic diseases
		13.5.1 Cancer
		13.5.2 Obesity and diabetes
		13.5.3 Hypertension
		13.5.4 Tuberculosis
	13.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
14 Herbal flavonoids in healthcare
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Brief account on herbal medicines
		14.2.1 Description of conventional herbal medicines
			14.2.1.1 Conventional Chinese medicine
			14.2.1.2 Conventional Japanese medicine
			14.2.1.3 Indian conventional medicine
	14.3 Causes for uprising in the application of herbal medicines
		14.3.1 Personal inclination for herbal medicines
		14.3.2 Feeling of safety
		14.3.3 Efficiency in the management of diseases
		14.3.4 Easy accessibility to traditional medical practitioners
		14.3.5 Cost-effective or low cost
		14.3.6 For ultimate support
	14.4 Classification of herbal flavonoids and their chemical structure
	14.5 Flavonoid rich food and medicinal plants
	14.6 Various fields of application of flavonoids in the healthcare system
		14.6.1 Health-improved characteristics of flavonoids
			14.6.1.1 Promote immune system
			14.6.1.2 Antioxidant activity
			14.6.1.3 Anticancer effect of flavonoids
			14.6.1.4 Effect of flavonoids on cardiovascular system
			14.6.1.5 Effect of flavonoids on nervous system
			14.6.1.6 Hepatoprotective activity
			14.6.1.7 Antibacterial activity
			14.6.1.8 Antiinflammatory potential
			14.6.1.9 Antiviral activity
			14.6.1.10 Antidiabetic activity
		14.6.2 Application of herbal flavonoids in food
	14.7 Future research improvement on flavonoids
	14.8 Conclusion
	References
15 Herbal terpenoids in healthcare
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Medicinal plants as source of terpenoids
	15.3 Pharmacological effects of terpenoids
		15.3.1 Anticancer effects
		15.3.2 Antioxidant effects
		15.3.3 Antidiabetic effects
	15.4 Antimicrobial effects of terpenoids
		15.4.1 Antibacterial effects
		15.4.2 Antifungal effects
		15.4.3 Antiviral effects
	15.5 Conclusion
	References
16 Herbal coumarins in healthcare
	16.1 General description of coumarins
	16.2 Bioactivity studies performed on the coumarins
		16.2.1 Analgesic activity
		16.2.2 Antiadipogenic activity
		16.2.3 Antiangiogenic activity
		16.2.4 Anticancer activity and cytotoxicity
		16.2.5 Anticardiovascular activity
		16.2.6 Anticoagulant activity
		16.2.7 Antidiabetic activity
		16.2.8 Antiedema activity
		16.2.9 Antihypertensive activity
		16.2.10 Anti-inflammatory activity
		16.2.11 Antimicrobial activity
		16.2.12 Antioxidant activity
		16.2.13 Antispasmodic activity
		16.2.14 Antiviral activity
		16.2.15 Central nervous system related activities
			16.2.15.1 Alzheimer's Disease
			16.2.15.2 Anticonvulsant
			16.2.15.3 Anxiolytic
			16.2.15.4 Depression
			16.2.15.5 Neuroprotective
			16.2.15.6 Parkinson's Disease
		16.2.16 COVID-19 virus
		16.2.17 Hepatoprotective activity
		16.2.18 Immunomodulator activity
		16.2.19 Phototoxicity
	16.3 Conclusion
	References
17 Plant biomolecule antimicrobials: an alternative control measures for food security and safety
	17.1 Introduction
		17.1.1 Phytochemistry of bioactive compounds
			17.1.1.1 Polyphenols and their classification
				17.1.1.1.1 Phenolic acids
				17.1.1.1.2 Flavonoids
				17.1.1.1.3 Stilbenes
				17.1.1.1.4 Tannins
			17.1.1.2 Alkaloids and their classification
		17.1.2 Essential oils and plant extracts
			17.1.2.1 Plant extracts
			17.1.2.2 Essential oils
			17.1.2.3 Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and plant extracts
			17.1.2.4 Possible mechanisms of action of essential oils and plant extracts
				17.1.2.4.1 Susceptibility to gram positive and gram negative bacteria
				17.1.2.4.2 Effects of essential oils/extracts on cell wall/membrane
				17.1.2.4.3 Dysfunction of mitochondria
				17.1.2.4.4 Effects of essential oils/extracts on virulence factor
				17.1.2.4.5 Action of essential oils/extracts on reactive oxygen species and fenton reaction
		17.1.3 General applications of plant biomolecules
			17.1.3.1 Applications of polyphenols
			17.1.3.2 Applications of alkaloids
	17.2 Conclusion and future prospect
	Acknowledgments
	References
18 Antidiabetic herbal biomolecules
	18.1 Diabetes mellitus
	18.2 Glucose homeostasis
	18.3 Insulin resistance
	18.4 Metabolic pathways and their relationship with diabetes mellitus
	18.5 Enzymes
	18.6 Causes associated with diabetes mellitus
	18.7 Oxidative stress
	18.8 Control of diabetes mellitus
	18.9 Compounds with antidiabetic properties
		18.9.1 Berries
			18.9.1.1 Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.)
			18.9.1.2 Bayberry (Morella rubra Sieb. et Zucc.)
			18.9.1.3 Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa)
			18.9.1.4 Mulberry (Morus alba L.)
			18.9.1.5 Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L.)
		18.9.2 Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.)
		18.9.3 Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora Pierre)
		18.9.4 Goji (Lycium barbarum)
		18.9.5 Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.)
		18.9.6 Guava (Psidium guajava L.)
		18.9.7 Mushrooms
		18.9.8 Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.)
		18.9.9 Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.)
		18.9.10 Mango (Mangifera indica)
		18.9.11 Apple (Malus x domestica L. Borkh.)
		18.9.12 Bitter melon (Momordica charantia L.)
		18.9.13 Grape (Vitis vinifera L.)
	18.10 Conclusions
	References
19 Herbal biomolecules: anticancer agents
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Cancer: plant-based treatment
	19.3 Plants secondary metabolites as anticancer drugs
	19.4 Plant collection, extraction, identification, and anticancer a activity of HBs
	19.5 Modern drugs for cancer treatment and its limitations
	19.6 Present cancer therapy via phytochemicals: as a novel approach
	19.7 Herbal biomolecules with anticancer activity
		19.7.1 Phenols as anticancer activity
		19.7.2 Flavonoids as anticancer agents
		19.7.3 Tannins as anticancer activity
		19.7.4 Stilbenes as anticancer agents
		19.7.5 Curcuminoids as anticancer agents
		19.7.6 Coumarins as anticancer activity
		19.7.7 Lignans in anticancer activity
		19.7.8 Quinones as anticancer activity
		19.7.9 Alkaloids as anticancer agents
		19.7.10 Others as anticancer agents
	19.8 Various schemes for the development of anticancer herbal biomolecules
	19.9 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
20 Herbal biomolecules acting on central nervous system
	20.1 Contribution of plants to Central Nervous System science
	20.2 Herbal biomolecules with central nervous system activities
		20.2.1 Alkaloids biomolecules in central nervous system diseases
	20.3 Biomolecules with cholinergic stimulant effect
		20.3.1 Nicotine
			20.3.1.1 Mechanism of psychogenic activity of nicotine
			20.3.1.2 Effects of nicotine—a herbal biomolecule
		20.3.2 Arecoline
			20.3.2.1 Mechanism of action of arecoline and similar biomolecules
			20.3.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in areca
		20.3.3 Lobeline
			20.3.3.1 Mechanism of action of lobeline and other biomolecules in lobelia
			20.3.3.2 Effects of biomolecules in lobeline
	20.4 Biomolecules with Monoamine Stimulant effect
		20.4.1 Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine
			20.4.1.1 Mechanism of action of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine and other biomolecules in ephedra
			20.4.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in ephedra
		20.4.2 Norpseudoephedrine (cathine)
			20.4.2.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in Khat and similar biomolecules
			20.4.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in khat
		20.4.3 Cocaine
			20.4.3.1 Mechanism of action of cocaine
			20.4.3.2 Effects of biomolecules in coca
	20.5 Biomolecles with Purinergic stimulant effects
		20.5.1 Caffeine
		20.5.2 Theobromine
		20.5.3 Cocaine
		20.5.4 Mechanism of central nervous system activity of purinergic stimulants
		20.5.5 Effects of purinergic stimulants
	20.6 Biomolecules with Cognitive enhancing effects
		20.6.1 Herbal nootropics
		20.6.2 Apigenin
			20.6.2.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in ginkgo
			20.6.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in ginkgo
		20.6.3 Ginsenosides
			20.6.3.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in ginseng
			20.6.3.2 Effects of ginseng biomolecules
		20.6.4 Ergot biomolecules
		20.6.5 Ergocristine
			20.6.5.1 Mechanism of action of hydergine
			20.6.5.2 Effects of biomolecules in hydergine
		20.6.6 α-Solanine and α-chaconine
		20.6.7 l-DOPA
	20.7 Herbal sedatives and anxiolytics
		20.7.1 Valerian biomolecules
		20.7.2 Valeric acid
			20.7.2.1 Mechanism of action biomolecules in valerian
			20.7.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in valerian
		20.7.3 Kava biomolecules
			20.7.3.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in kava
			20.7.3.2 Effects of kava biomolecules
		20.7.4 Passion flower biomolecules
			20.7.4.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in passion flower
			20.7.4.2 Effects of biomolecules in passion flower
		20.7.5 Chamomile biomolecules
			20.7.5.1 Mechanism of biomolecules in chamomile
			20.7.5.2 Effects of biomolecules in chamomile
		20.7.6 Catnip biomolecules
	20.8 Psychotherapeutic herbs
		20.8.1 Herbal antidepressants and anxiolytics
		20.8.2 Saint-John’s Wort biomolecules
			20.8.2.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in Saint-John’s Wort
			20.8.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in Saint-John’s Wort
		20.8.3 Ginger biomolecules
			20.8.3.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in ginger
		20.8.4 Ginkgo biomolecules
		20.8.5 Rauwolfia biomolecules
			20.8.5.1 Effects of biomolecules in Rauwolfia serpentina
	20.9 Analgesic herbs
		20.9.1 Opium poppy biomolecules
			20.9.1.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in Papaver somniferum
			20.9.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in opioid
		20.9.2 Myrrh biomolecules
			20.9.2.1 Effects of biomolecules in Commophora momol
		20.9.3 Cholinergic analgesics
		20.9.4 Eicosanoid analgesics
			20.9.4.1 Willow biomolecules
				20.9.4.1.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in Willow
				20.9.4.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in feverfew
		20.9.5 Neurokinin analgesics
			20.9.5.1 Capsaicin
				20.9.5.1.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in chili peppers
				20.9.5.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in chili pepper
		20.9.6 Ginger biomolecules
		20.9.7 Purinergic analgesics
			20.9.7.1 Cannabinoid analgesia
				20.9.7.1.1 Cannabinoids
		20.9.8 Monoamine analgesics
			20.9.8.1 Cathinone
			20.9.8.2 Cocaine
		20.9.9 Uncertain analgesic mechanisms
			20.9.9.1 Ginsenoside
	20.10 Local anesthetic biomolecules
		20.10.1 Cocaine
			20.10.1.1 Mechanism of local anesthetic action of Cocaine
		20.10.2 Eugenol
			20.10.2.1 Mechanism of action of eugenol
	20.11 Hallucinogenic plants
		20.11.1 Monoamine hallucinogens
			20.11.1.1 d-Isolysergic acid and d-lysergic acid
				20.11.1.1.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in ergot
				20.11.1.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in ergot
			20.11.1.2 Psilocybin and psilocin
				20.11.1.2.1 Mechanisms of action of psilocybin and psilocin
				20.11.1.2.2 Effect of psilocybin and psilocin
			20.11.1.3 Mescaline
				20.11.1.3.1 Mechanisms of action of mescaline
				20.11.1.3.2 Effects of biomolecules in peyote
			20.11.1.4 Dimethyltryptamine and harmala alkaloids
				20.11.1.4.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in yage
				20.11.1.4.2 Effects of biomolecules in yage
			20.11.1.5 Morning glory and related species
				20.11.1.5.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in morning glory and related species
			20.11.1.6 Ibogaine (nutmeg and mace biomolecules)
				20.11.1.6.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in nutmeg and mace
				20.11.1.6.2 Effects of biomolecules in nutmeg and mace
		20.11.2 Cholinergic hallucinogens
			20.11.2.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in cholinergic hallucinogens
			20.11.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in cholinergic hallucinogens
		20.11.3 Amino acid hallucinogens
			20.11.3.1 Fly agaric biomolecules
				20.11.3.1.1 Effects of biomolecules in fly agaric
	References
21 Herbal biomolecules as nutraceuticals
	21.1 Introduction
		21.1.1 Introduction to nutraceuticals
		21.1.2 Market scope and regulation of the nutraceuticals
	21.2 Classification of the herbal biomolecules
		21.2.1 Herbal biomolecules based on food sources
			21.2.1.1 Dietary fibers
			21.2.1.2 Poly-unsaturated fatty acids
			21.2.1.3 Spices and condiments
		21.2.2 Herbal biomolecules based on pharmacological property
			21.2.2.1 Anticancer herbal biomolecules
			21.2.2.2 Antioxidant herbal biomolecules
			21.2.2.3 Antiinflammatory herbal biomolecules
			21.2.2.4 Antimicrobial and antiviral herbal biomolecules
			21.2.2.5 Immunomodulatory herbal biomolecules
		21.2.3 Herbal biomolecules based on chemical nature
			21.2.3.1 Polyphenols
				21.2.3.1.1 Some natural sources of polyphenols
			21.2.3.2 Carotenoids
			21.2.3.3 Ascorbic acid
			21.2.3.4 Tocopherols and tocotrienols
			21.2.3.5 Saponins
	21.3 Conclusion
	References
22 Herbal immunomodulators
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Methods
	22.3 Results
		22.3.1 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounded from plants from genus Achillea
		22.3.2 Immunomodulatory effects of the bioactive compounds of Allium cepa
		22.3.3 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Crocus sativus
		22.3.4 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Curcuma longa
		22.3.5 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Ferula spices
		22.3.6 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Nigella sativa
		22.3.7 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Ocimum basilicum
		22.3.8 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Portulaca oleracea, quercetin
		22.3.9 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Thymus vulgaris, thymol
		22.3.10 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Zataria multiflora
	22.4 Discussion and conclusion
	Conflict of interest
	References
23 Herbal antilithiatic biomolecules
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Kidney stones
	23.3 Herbal antilithiatic biomolecules
		23.3.1 Lupeol
			23.3.1.1 Sources
			23.3.1.2 Clinical utility
			23.3.1.3 Possible mechanism of action
		23.3.2 Epigallocatechin-3-gallate
			23.3.2.1 Sources
			23.3.2.2 Clinical utility
			23.3.2.3 Possible mechanism of action
		23.3.3 Quercetin
			23.3.3.1 Sources
			23.3.3.2 Clinical utility
			23.3.3.3 Possible mechanism of action
		23.3.4 Thymoquinone
			23.3.4.1 Sources
			23.3.4.2 Clinical utility
			23.3.4.3 Possible mechanism of action
		23.3.5 Bergenin
			23.3.5.1 Sources
			23.3.5.2 Clinical utility
			23.3.5.3 Possible mechanism of action
	23.4 Conclusions and future perspective
	References
24 Herbal aphrodisiac biomolecules in the management of male reproductive and sexual problems: connecting nature with clinics
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Traditional herbal medicine
	24.3 Aphrodisiacs
		24.3.1 Need for aphrodisiacs
		24.3.2 Herbal aphrodisiacs
			24.3.2.1 Panax ginseng
			24.3.2.2 Tribulus terrestris
			24.3.2.3 Eurycoma longifolia
			24.3.2.4 Chlorophytum borivilianum
			24.3.2.5 Ginkgo biloba
			24.3.2.6 Turnera diffusa var. aphrodisiaca
	24.4 Potential mechanism of action of aphrodisiac biomolecules
	24.5 Conclusion
	References
25 Herbal biopolysaccharides in drug delivery
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Classifications and sources of herbal biopolysaccharides
		25.2.1 Herbal gums
		25.2.2 Herbal mucilages
		25.2.3 Herbal starches
	25.3 Herbal polysaccharides and their uses in drug delivery
		25.3.1 Cellulose
		25.3.2 Pectins
		25.3.3 Gum Arabic
		25.3.4 Gum tragacanth
		25.3.5 Guar gum
		25.3.6 Sterculia gum
		25.3.7 Locust bean gum
		25.3.8 Tamarind gum
			25.3.8.1 Okra gum
			25.3.8.2 Cashew gum
			25.3.8.3 Linseed polysaccharide
			25.3.8.4 Fenugreek seed mucilage
			25.3.8.5 Ispaghula husk mucilage
			25.3.8.6 Potato starch
			25.3.8.7 Tapioca starch
			25.3.8.8 Jackfruit seed starch
			25.3.8.9 Miscellaneous
	25.4 Conclusion
	References
26 Standardization of herbal biomolecules
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Authentication and standardization of herbal drugs
		26.2.1 Chemical fingerprinting—chromatographic techniques
		26.2.2 Spectroscopic techniques
		26.2.3 Metabolomics in herbal drug standardization
			26.2.3.1 Metabolomics in the identification of herbal products
			26.2.3.2 Metabolomics for quality assessment of herbal medicines
		26.2.4 DNA-based techniques
		26.2.5 Biochip technology
	26.3 Safety and toxicity profiling of herbal medicines
		26.3.1 Toxicity arising from extraneous sources
			26.3.1.1 Microbial contamination
			26.3.1.2 Mycotoxins control
			26.3.1.3 Pesticides, fumigation agent residues
			26.3.1.4 Radioactive contamination
			26.3.1.5 Residual solvents
			26.3.1.6 Toxic heavy metal content
		26.3.2 Intrinsic toxicity
			26.3.2.1 Single-dose toxicity and repeat-dose toxicity studies
			26.3.2.2 Genotoxicity studies
	26.4 Conclusion
	References
27 Regulatory considerations of herbal biomolecules
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 Biomolecules
		27.2.1 Examples for commercialized biomolecules as drugs
			27.2.1.1 Morphine
			27.2.1.2 Silibinin
			27.2.1.3 Taxol
			27.2.1.4 Psilocybin
			27.2.1.5 Resveratol
	27.3 Food and drug administration regulations on botanical drugs/ biomolecules
	27.4 Marketing of herbal biomolecules
	27.5 Investigational new drug application for herbal biomolecules
	27.6 New drug application for herbal biomolecules
		27.6.1 Product description and documentation
		27.6.2 Quality control
		27.6.3 Postmarketing considerations
	27.7 Role of code of federal regulations in regulation of biomolecules
		27.7.1 India
		27.7.2 Saudi Arabia
		27.7.3 Australia
		27.7.4 The United States of America
		27.7.5 Canada
		27.7.6 Europe Union
	27.8 World Health Organization regulation policy on herbal biomolecules
	27.9 Conclusion
	References
28 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Methods
	28.3 Results
		28.3.1 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules plants from genus Achillea
		28.3.2 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Allium cepa
		28.3.3 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Crocus sativus
		28.3.4 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Curcuma longa
		28.3.5 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Ferula spices
		28.3.6 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Nigella sativa
		28.3.7 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Portulaca oleracea
		28.3.8 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Zataria moltiflora
	28.4 Discussion and conclusion
	Conflict of interest
	References
Index
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