Hearing Loss in Congenital, Neonatal and Childhood Infections (Comprehensive ENT)

Preface
Contents
Contributors
Part I: General Overview
	1: Pediatric Hearing Loss
		1.1	 Introduction
		1.2	 Sensorineural Hearing Loss
			1.2.1	 Epidemiology
			1.2.2	 Aetiology
				1.2.2.1	 Autosomal Dominant Auditory Impairment as Part of a Syndrome
				1.2.2.2	 Autosomal Recessive Disorders
				1.2.2.3	 X-Linked Disorders and Other Disorders of Variable Inheritance
			1.2.3	 Signs and Symptoms
			1.2.4	 Diagnosis
			1.2.5	 Treatment
				1.2.5.1	 Cochlear Implants
		1.3	 Conductive Hearing Loss
			1.3.1	 CHL Present at Birth
				1.3.1.1	 Congenital Aural Atresia
			1.3.2	 Acquired CHL
				1.3.2.1	 Otitis Media with Effusion
				1.3.2.2	 Conductive Auditory Impairment Linked to Chronic Otitis Media
				1.3.2.3	 Tympanosclerosis
				1.3.2.4	 Cholesteatoma
		1.4	 Conclusion
		References
	2: Newborn Hearing Screening
		2.1	 Introduction
		2.2	 Etiology
			2.2.1	 Prenatal Period
				2.2.1.1	 Genetic Factors
					Syndromic Hearing Loss
					Nonsyndromic Hearing Loss
				2.2.1.2	 Intrauterine Infections
			2.2.2	 Perinatal Period
				2.2.2.1	 Perinatal Asphyxia
				2.2.2.2	 Hyperbilirubinemia
				2.2.2.3	 Low Birth Weight
				2.2.2.4	 Perinatal Infections
				2.2.2.5	 Ototoxic Medications
		2.3	 Screening
		2.4	 Conclusion
		References
	3: Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Hearing Loss
		3.1	 Introduction
		3.2	 Definition and Types of Hearing Loss
		3.3	 Epidemiology
		3.4	 Infectious Etiology of Hearing Loss
			3.4.1	 Congenital and Neonatal Infections
				3.4.1.1	 Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection and Hearing Loss
				3.4.1.2	 Congenital Toxoplasmosis and Hearing Loss
				3.4.1.3	 Congenital Rubella Infection and Hearing Loss
				3.4.1.4	 Congenital Syphilis and Hearing Loss
				3.4.1.5	 Congenital Zika Virus Infection and Hearing Loss
				3.4.1.6	 Herpes Simplex Virus Infection and Hearing Loss
				3.4.1.7	 Neonatal Sepsis and Meningitis and Hearing Loss
			3.4.2	 Focal and Systemic Infectious Diseases
				3.4.2.1	 Otitis Externa in Children and Hearing Loss
				3.4.2.2	 Acute Otitis Media in Children and Hearing Loss
				3.4.2.3	 Otitis Media with Effusion in Children and Hearing Loss
				3.4.2.4	 Recurrent Otitis Media in Children and Hearing Loss
				3.4.2.5	 Mastoiditis in Children and Hearing Loss
				3.4.2.6	 Bacterial Meningitis, Viral Meningitis, and Hearing Loss
				3.4.2.7	 Recurrent Meningitis, Congenital Defects, and Hearing Loss
			3.4.3	 Bacterial Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
			3.4.4	 Viral Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		3.5	 Conclusion
		References
	4: Communicating with a Child with Hearing Loss
		4.1	 Introduction
		4.2	 Communication Tools for Hard-of-Hearing or Deaf People
		4.3	 Listening and Speaking Skills
		4.4	 The Cued Speech
		4.5	 Sign Language
		4.6	 Total Communication
		4.7	 Auditory: Verbal Method
		4.8	 Auditory: Oral Method
		4.9	 Family Awareness for a Deaf or Hard of Hearing Child
		4.10	 Communicating with Hearing-Impaired or Deaf Children
		4.11	 Conclusion
		References
	5: Communication in the Family of a Hearing-Impaired Child
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 The Important Points for Families with Children Having Hearing Loss or Deafness
		5.3	 Communication Facts
			5.3.1	 Emotions
			5.3.2	 Positive Parenting
			5.3.3	 Support and Self-confidence
		5.4	 Impacts on Families
		5.5	 Positive Parenting Program
		5.6	 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Congenital and Neonatal Infections
	6: Congenital Infections and Hearing Loss: An Overview
		6.1	 Introduction
		6.2	 Pathophysiology
		6.3	 Infections
			6.3.1	 Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection
				6.3.1.1	 Epidemiology
				6.3.1.2	 Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis
				6.3.1.3	 Treatment
				6.3.1.4	 Outcome and Prevention
			6.3.2	 Congenital Toxoplasmosis
			6.3.3	 Congenital Rubella
			6.3.4	 Congenital Syphilis
			6.3.5	 Congenital Zika Virus Infection
			6.3.6	 Congenital Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Infection
			6.3.7	 Neonatal Herpes Simplex Virus Infection
		6.4	 Conclusion
		References
	7: Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection and Hearing Loss
		7.1	 Introduction
		7.2	 Etiology
		7.3	 Epidemiology
		7.4	 In Utero Findings
		7.5	 Clinical Characteristics
			7.5.1	 Asymptomatic Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection
			7.5.2	 Symptomatic Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection
		7.6	 Late Complications and Sequelae
		7.7	 Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection and Hearing Loss
		7.8	 Differential Diagnosis
		7.9	 Diagnostic Evaluation and Laboratory Diagnosis
		7.10	 Newborn Screening for Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection
		7.11	 Treatment
		7.12	 Long-term Follow-Up
		7.13	 Prevention
		7.14	 Conclusion
		References
	8: Congenital Toxoplasmosis and Hearing Loss
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 Etiology and Epidemiology
		8.3	 Life Cycle of Toxoplasma gondii and Transmission
		8.4	 Clinical Features
		8.5	 Congenital Toxoplasmosis
		8.6	 Diagnosis
			8.6.1	 Diagnosis of Congenital Toxoplasmosis
		8.7	 Treatment
		8.8	 Prophylaxis
		8.9	 Complications and Prognosis
		8.10	 Prevention
		8.11	 Screening Programs
		8.12	 Congenital Toxoplasmosis and Hearing Loss
		8.13	 Conclusion
		References
	9: Congenital Rubella Infection and Hearing Loss
		9.1	 Introduction
		9.2	 Etiology
		9.3	 Pathogenesis
		9.4	 Epidemiology
		9.5	 Clinical Manifestations of Congenital Rubella Syndrome
			9.5.1	 Early Manifestations
			9.5.2	 Cardiac Defects
			9.5.3	 Congenital Rubella Infection and Hearing Loss
			9.5.4	 Ophthalmological Manifestations
			9.5.5	 Delayed Manifestations
				9.5.5.1	 Endocrine Abnormalities
				9.5.5.2	 Cardiovascular Abnormalities
				9.5.5.3	 Ocular Abnormalities
				9.5.5.4	 Neurologic and Psychosocial Abnormalities
		9.6	 Diagnosis and Laboratory Findings
		9.7	 Treatment
		9.8	 Prevention and Control
		9.9	 Conclusion
		References
	10: Congenital Syphilis and Hearing Loss
		10.1	 Introduction
		10.2	 Etiology and Epidemiology
		10.3	 Transmission
		10.4	 Pathogenesis
		10.5	 Clinical Presentation
			10.5.1	 Early Congenital Syphilis
			10.5.2	 Late Congenital Syphilis
		10.6	 Congenital Syphilis and Hearing Loss
		10.7	 Diagnostic Approach
			10.7.1	 Laboratory Evaluation
				10.7.1.1	 Tests for Organism
				10.7.1.2	 Serological Tests
			10.7.2	 Radiology
		10.8	 Evaluation and Management
		10.9	 Treatment
		10.10	 Follow-Up and Outcome
		10.11	 Prevention
		10.12	 Conclusion
		References
	11: Congenital Zika Virus Infection and Hearing Loss
		11.1	 Introduction
		11.2	 Pathophysiological Features
		11.3	 Epidemiological Features
		11.4	 Prognosis
		11.5	 Transmission
			11.5.1	 Transmission Via Vectors
			11.5.2	 Viral Transmission Not Involving Vectors
		11.6	 Symptomatology and Physical Findings
		11.7	 Factors to Consider in Clinical Approach
		11.8	 Laboratory Investigations
			11.8.1	 Serology
		11.9	 Congenital ZIKV Infections
			11.9.1	 Congenital Anomalies, Including Microcephaly
			11.9.2	 ZIKV Tests in Pregnancy
			11.9.3	 Congenital ZIKV and Auditory Impairment
		11.10	 Pharmacotherapy
		References
	12: Hearing Loss in Neonates Exposed to Herpes Simplex Virus
		12.1	 Introduction
		12.2	 Etiology
		12.3	 Epidemiology and Transmission
		12.4	 Pathogenesis and Immunity
			12.4.1	 Herpes Simplex Virus Transmission to the Fetus
		12.5	 Clinical Manifestations
			12.5.1	 Congenital (In Utero) Herpes Simplex Virus Infection
			12.5.2	 Perinatal Herpes Simplex Virus Infection
				12.5.2.1	 Skin, Eyes, and Mouth (SEM) Disease
				12.5.2.2	 Central Nervous System Disease
				12.5.2.3	 Disseminated Disease
		12.6	 Diagnosis
		12.7	 Laboratory Features
			12.7.1	 Surface Viral Culture
			12.7.2	 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Test
			12.7.3	 Direct Immunofluorescence Antibody (DFA) Test
			12.7.4	 Other Tests
			12.7.5	 Cranial Imaging
			12.7.6	 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
			12.7.7	 Evaluation of Hearing
		12.8	 Neonates Exposed to Herpes Simplex Virus and Hearing Loss
		12.9	 Treatment
		12.10	 Prognosis
		12.11	 Prevention of Neonatal Herpes Simplex Virus Infection
		12.12	 Conclusion
		References
	13: Hearing Loss in Neonatal Sepsis and Meningitis
		13.1	 Introduction
		13.2	 Etiology
		13.3	 Microbiology
		13.4	 Epidemiology
			13.4.1	 Incidence
			13.4.2	 Risk Factors
			13.4.3	 Morbidity and Mortality
		13.5	 Bacteria and Host Interactions
			13.5.1	 Host and Bacterial Factors
			13.5.2	 Invasion and Disease Production
		13.6	 Clinical Manifestations
		13.7	 Diagnosis and Laboratory Findings
		13.8	 Treatment
			13.8.1	 Empirical Treatment
			13.8.2	 Specific Treatment
			13.8.3	 Supportive Treatment
			13.8.4	 Adjunctive Treatment
		13.9	 Complications and Prognosis
		13.10	 Hearing Loss in Neonatal Sepsis and Meningitis
		13.11	 Prevention and Control
			13.11.1 Prevention of Early-Onset Sepsis
			13.11.2 Isolation and Prophylactic Measures Against Nursery Outbreaks
			13.11.3 Breastfeeding
			13.11.4 Chemoprophylaxis and Immunoprophylaxis
		13.12	 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Focal and Systemic Infectious Diseases
	14: Otitis Externa in Children and Auditory Impairment
		14.1	 Introduction
		14.2	 Etiological and Epidemiological Features
		14.3	 Classification
		14.4	 Signs and Symptoms: Otitis Externa and Auditory Impairment
		14.5	 Signs and Symptoms: Otitis Externa and Hearing Loss
			14.5.1	 Physical Examination
			14.5.2	 Laboratory Tests
			14.5.3	 Imaging Investigations
		14.6	 Treatment
			14.6.1	 Antibiotics
				14.6.1.1	 Hydrocortisone/Neomycin/Polymyxin B (Cortisporin, Cortomycin)
				14.6.1.2	 Ofloxacin Ear Drops
				14.6.1.3	 Ciprofloxacin Otic (Cetraxal)
				14.6.1.4	 Dexamethasone/Tobramycin (TobraDex)
				14.6.1.5	 Gentamicin Ophthalmic (Garamycin, Gentak)
				14.6.1.6	 Ciprofloxacin and Dexamethasone Otic (Ciprodex)
				14.6.1.7	 Ciprofloxacin and Hydrocortisone Ear Drops (Cipro HC Otic)
			14.6.2	 Debriding and Draining the Ear Canal
			14.6.3	 Complications
		References
	15: Necrotising (Malignant) Otitis Externa and Auditory Impairment in Children
		15.1	 Introduction
		15.2	 Pathophysiology
		15.3	 Mortality and Morbidity
			15.3.1	 Cranial Nerve Palsies
			15.3.2	 Intracranial Extension
			15.3.3	 Comorbidities
		15.4	 Aetiology
		15.5	 Epidemiology
		15.6	 Signs and Symptomatology of NOE
		15.7	 Complications, Including Auditory Impairment, in NOE
		15.8	 Physical Examination
		15.9	 Diagnosis
			15.9.1	 Imaging Investigations
			15.9.2	 99mTc Methylene Diphosphonate Bone Scan
			15.9.3	 Gallium-67 Imaging Scan
			15.9.4	 Imaging Utilising Indium-111 Leucocytic Labelling
			15.9.5	 CT and MR Imaging
		15.10	 Therapy
			15.10.1 Antimicrobial Treatment
			15.10.2 Hyperbaric Oxygen Administration
			15.10.3 Operative Interventions
		References
	16: Acute Otitis Media and Hearing Loss in Children
		16.1	 Introduction
		16.2	 Pathophysiology
			16.2.1	 Infections by Bacteria and Viruses
			16.2.2	 Immunological Factors
		16.3	 Aetiology
			16.3.1	 Pathogenic Viruses
			16.3.2	 Pathogenic Bacteria
				16.3.2.1 Streptococcus pneumoniae
				16.3.2.2 Heamophilus İnfluenza
				16.3.2.3 Moraxella catarrhalis
				16.3.2.4 Anaerobes
				16.3.2.5 Frequently Noted Pathogenic Bacteria in Neonates
		16.4	 Risk Factors
		16.5	 Epidemiological Aspects
			16.5.1	 Demographic Characteristics—Age, Sex and Ethnicity
		16.6	 Signs and Symptoms
		16.7	 AOM and Auditory Impairment
		16.8	 Diagnosis
			16.8.1	 Physical Examination
			16.8.2	 Auditory Tests
			16.8.3	 Imaging Investigations
			16.8.4	 Operative Interventions
		16.9	 Clinical Management
			16.9.1	 Medication
			16.9.2	 Surgical Interventions
		16.10	 Complications
		References
	17: Otitis Media with Effusion and Hearing Loss in Children
		17.1	 Introduction
		17.2	 Pathophysiology
			17.2.1	 Classical Explanation
			17.2.2	 More Recent Explanations
			17.2.3	 Middle Ear Effusion
			17.2.4	 Cleft Palate
		17.3	 Frequently Occurring Pathogens
		17.4	 Risk Factors
			17.4.1	 Environment
			17.4.2	 Age
			17.4.3	 Disrupted Auditory Tube Function
			17.4.4	 Diet
			17.4.5	 Other Factors
		17.5	 Epidemiological Features
		17.6	 OME and Auditory Impairment
		17.7	 Clinical Work-Up
		17.8	 Management
			17.8.1	 Grommets
		References
	18: Recurrent Otitis Media and Hearing Loss in Children
		18.1	 Introduction
		18.2	 Prevalence
		18.3	 Risk Factors
		18.4	 Prevention
			18.4.1	 Socioeconomic Status, Breastfeeding and Use of Tobacco by the Parents
			18.4.2	 Genetics
			18.4.3	 Vaccination
			18.4.4	 The Conjugated Vaccine Against Pneumococcus (PCV)
		18.5	 Diagnosis
		18.6	 Treatment
			18.6.1	 Insertion of Grommets/Ventilatory Tubes
		References
	19: Mastoiditis and Hearing Loss in Children
		19.1	 Introduction
		19.2	 Definitions
		19.3	 Pathophysiological Mechanism
		19.4	 Aetiology
			19.4.1	 Acute Mastoiditis
			19.4.2	 Chronic Mastoiditis
		19.5	 Prognosis
		19.6	 Diagnosis
			19.6.1	 History Taking and Auditory Impairment
			19.6.2	 Physical Examination
			19.6.3	 Tests
			19.6.4	 Computerised Tomography (CT)
			19.6.5	 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
		19.7	 Treatment
			19.7.1	 Tympanocentesis and Myringotomy
				19.7.1.1	 Acute Mastoiditis
				19.7.1.2	 Empirical Treatment
				19.7.1.3	 Mastoidectomy
			19.7.2	 Chronic Mastoiditis
		19.8	 Complications
		References
	20: Labyrinthitis in Children and Hearing Loss
		20.1	 Introduction
		20.2	 Aetiology
			20.2.1	 Causative Viral and Bacterial Pathogens
		20.3	 Classification
			20.3.1	 Viral Labyrinthitis
				20.3.1.1	 Vestibular Neuritis
					Pathophysiology
					Clinical Presentation
					Diagnosis
					Therapy
			20.3.2	 Bacterial Labyrinthitis
				20.3.2.1	 Suppurative Labyrinthitis
			20.3.3	 Serous Labyrinthitis
			20.3.4	 Autoimmune Labyrinthitis
		20.4	 Prognosis
			20.4.1	 Morbidity and Mortality
		20.5	 Diagnosis
			20.5.1	 History
				20.5.1.1	 Physical Examination
			20.5.2	 Audiographic Assessment
			20.5.3	 Imaging Studies
				20.5.3.1	 Computed Tomography (CT)
				20.5.3.2	 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
		20.6	 Therapy
			20.6.1	 Viral Labyrinthitis
			20.6.2	 Bacterial Labyrinthitis
			20.6.3	 Surgical Interventions
		References
	21: Bacterial Meningitis in Children and Hearing Loss
		21.1	 Introduction
		21.2	 Etiology and Epidemiology
		21.3	 Pathogenesis and Predisposing Risk Factors
		21.4	 Clinical Manifestations
		21.5	 Diagnosis
		21.6	 Management
		21.7	 Hearing Loss in Children with Acute Bacterial Meningitis
			21.7.1	 Adjunctive Therapy to Prevent Hearing Loss in Children with Acute Bacterial Meningitis
				21.7.1.1	 Adjuvant Dexamethasone Therapy
				21.7.1.2	 Adjuvant Glycerol Therapy
		21.8	 Conclusion
		References
	22: Recurrent Meningitis, Congenital Defects, and Hearing Loss
		22.1	 Introduction
		22.2	 Etiology and Epidemiology
		22.3	 Pathogenesis
		22.4	 Clinical Manifestations
		22.5	 Recurrent Meningitis, Congenital Defects, and Hearing Loss
		22.6	 Diagnosis
		22.7	 Treatment
		22.8	 Prevention and Prophylaxis
		22.9	 Conclusion
		References
	23: Focal Suppurative Infections of the Central Nervous System in Children and Hearing Loss
		23.1	 Introduction
		23.2	 Septic Dural Sinus Thrombosis
			23.2.1	 Dural Venous Sinuses: Dural Sinus, Cerebral Sinus, and Cranial Sinus
			23.2.2	 Cerebral Sinus Thrombosis
				23.2.2.1	 Risk Factors
				23.2.2.2	 Pathophysiology
				23.2.2.3	 Clinical Findings
			23.2.3	 Septic Cerebral Sinus Thrombosis
		23.3	 Septic Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis
			23.3.1	 Anatomy
			23.3.2	 Microbiology
			23.3.3	 Epidemiology
			23.3.4	 Pathogenesis
			23.3.5	 Clinical Manifestations
			23.3.6	 Laboratory
				23.3.6.1	 Imaging
				23.3.6.2	 Other Laboratory Tests
			23.3.7	 Differential Diagnosis
				23.3.7.1	 Periorbital and Orbital Cellulitis
				23.3.7.2	 Intraorbital Abscess
				23.3.7.3	 Intracavernous Carotid Artery Aneurysm or Arteriovenous Fistula
				23.3.7.4	 Aseptic Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis
			23.3.8	 Treatment
				23.3.8.1	 Antibiotics
					Duration of Antibiotic Therapy
				23.3.8.2	 Anticoagulation
				23.3.8.3	 Surgery
				23.3.8.4	 Lack of Role for Glucocorticoids
			23.3.9	 Outcome
			23.3.10	 Complication of Hearing Loss
		23.4	 Septic Lateral Sinus Thrombosis
			23.4.1	 Microbiology
			23.4.2	 Epidemiology
			23.4.3	 Pathogenesis
			23.4.4	 Clinical Manifestations
			23.4.5	 Laboratory
			23.4.6	 Differential Diagnosis
			23.4.7	 Treatment
				23.4.7.1	 Antibiotics
				23.4.7.2	 Surgery
				23.4.7.3	 Anticoagulation
				23.4.7.4	 Treatment of Elevated Intracranial Pressure
			23.4.8	 Outcome
			23.4.9	 Hearing Loss
		23.5	 Septic Superior Sagittal Sinus Thrombosis
		23.6	 Conclusion
		References
	24: Viral Meningitis in Children and Hearing Loss
		24.1	 Introduction
		24.2	 Definition
		24.3	 Epidemiology
		24.4	 Pathogenesis
		24.5	 Etiology
		24.6	 Clinical Features
		24.7	 Complications
		24.8	 Diagnosis
		24.9	 Treatment
		24.10	 Prognosis
		24.11	 Prevention
		24.12	 Viral Meningitis in Children and Hearing Loss
		24.13	 Common Viruses Causing Intrauterine Infection-Related Congenital Hearing Loss
		24.14	 Common Viruses Causing Meningitis and Acquired Hearing Loss in Children
			24.14.1 Mumps and Hearing Loss
			24.14.2 Measles (Rubeola) and Hearing Loss
			24.14.3 Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV) and Hearing Loss
			24.14.4 Influenza and Hearing Loss
			24.14.5 Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) and Hearing Loss
			24.14.6 West Nile Virus (WNV) and Hearing Loss
			24.14.7 Lassa Fever (LF) and Hearing Loss
			24.14.8 Enteroviruses and Hearing Loss
			24.14.9 Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1) and Hearing Loss
			24.14.10 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Hearing Loss
			24.14.11 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 and Hearing Loss
		24.15	 Viral Vaccines and Hearing Loss
			24.15.1 Mumps Vaccine
			24.15.2 Measles Vaccine
			24.15.3 Influenza Vaccine
			24.15.4 Hepatitis B Vaccine
			24.15.5 Rabies Vaccine
		24.16	 Conclusion
		References
	25: Meningoencephalitis in Children and Hearing Loss
		25.1	 Introduction
		25.2	 Definition
		25.3	 Pathogenesis
		25.4	 Etiology
		25.5	 Clinical Features
		25.6	 Diagnosis
		25.7	 Treatment
		25.8	 Prevention
		25.9	 Prognosis
		25.10	 Hearing Loss in Meningoencephalitis
		25.11	 Congenital Infections Causing Hearing Loss
			25.11.1 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection
			25.11.2 Rubella Virus Infection
			25.11.3 Toxoplasmosis
			25.11.4 Zika Virus Infection
			25.11.5 Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus (LCMV) Infection
		25.12	 Congenital and Acquired Infections Causing Hearing Loss
			25.12.1 Syphilis
			25.12.2 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection
			25.12.3 Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Infection
		25.13	 Acquired Infections Causing Hearing Loss
			25.13.1 Measles
			25.13.2 Mumps
			25.13.3 Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV) Infection
			25.13.4 West Nile Virus (WNV) Infection
			25.13.5 Dengue Virus Infection
			25.13.6 Lassa Virus Infection
			25.13.7 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
			25.13.8 Cryptococcosis
		25.14	 Autoimmune Encephalitis
		25.15	 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Bacterial Infections
	26: Bacterial Infections in Children and Hearing Loss: An Overview
		26.1	 Introduction
		26.2	 Mechanisms and Causes of Hearing Loss
			26.2.1	 Conductive Hearing Loss
			26.2.2	 Sensorineural Hearing Loss
			26.2.3	 Mixed Hearing Loss
		26.3	 Congenital Bacterial Infections and Hearing Loss
			26.3.1	 Congenital Tuberculosis and Hearing Loss
		26.4	 Acute Bacterial Meningitis and Hearing Loss
			26.4.1	 Acute Bacterial Meningitis in Neonatal Period
				26.4.1.1	 Etiology
				26.4.1.2	 Hearing Loss Related to Neonatal Acute Bacterial Meningitis
			26.4.2	 Acute Bacterial Meningitis Beyond Neonatal Period
				26.4.2.1	 Etiology
				26.4.2.2	 Hearing Loss Related to Streptococcus pneumoniae Meningitis
				26.4.2.3	 Hearing Loss Related to Haemophilus influenzae Type b Meningitis
		26.5	 Use of Corticosteroids in Bacterial Meningitis for Preventing Hearing Loss
		26.6	 Conclusion
		References
	27: Group B Streptococcal Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		27.1	 Introduction
		27.2	 Etiology
		27.3	 Epidemiology
			27.3.1	 Maternal Colonization
			27.3.2 Infant Colonization
			27.3.3 Incidence of Disease
		27.4	 Terminology
		27.5	 Clinical Manifestations
			27.5.1	 Clinical Manifestations in Early-Onset Disease
			27.5.2 Clinical Manifestations in Late-Onset Disease
			27.5.3 Clinical Manifestations in Late-Late-Onset Disease
		27.6	 Laboratory Investigation and Diagnosis
		27.7	 Treatment
			27.7.1	 Empirical and Specific Treatment
			27.7.2 Supportive Treatment
			27.7.3 Adjunctive Treatment
		27.8	 Recurrent Infection
		27.9	 Outcome
		27.10	 Group B Streptococcal Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		27.11	 Prevention
			27.11.1 Intrapartum Antibiotic Prophylaxis (IAP)
			27.11.2 Immunoprophylaxis
		27.12	 Conclusion
		References
	28: Pneumococcal Meningitis in Children and Hearing Loss
		28.1	 Introduction
		28.2	 Etiology
			28.2.1	 Microbiology
			28.2.2	 Virulence
		28.3	 Epidemiology and Transmission
		28.4	 Pathogenesis
		28.5	 Pneumococcal Vaccines
		28.6	 Pneumococcal Meningitis in Children
			28.6.1	 Vaccination and Changing Epidemiology
			28.6.2	 Pathogenesis
			28.6.3	 Clinical Evaluation
			28.6.4	 Complications and Long-Term Sequelae
			28.6.5	 Treatment
		28.7	 Pneumococcal Meningitis and Hearing Loss
			28.7.1	 The Architecture and Physiology of Hearing
			28.7.2	 Pneumococci and Hearing Loss
			28.7.3	 Unresolved Issue
			28.7.4	 New Treatment Approaches: Experimental Treatments
		28.8	 Conclusion
		References
	29: Meningococcal Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		29.1	 Introduction
		29.2	 Etiology and Epidemiology
		29.3	 Risk Factors
		29.4	 Clinical Manifestations
		29.5	 Diagnosis and Laboratory Findings
		29.6	 Treatment
		29.7	 Prognosis
		29.8	 Bacterial Meningitis, Invasive Meningococcal Disease, and Hearing Loss
		29.9	 Meningococcal Meningitis Follow-Up for Hearing Loss
		29.10	 Health-Related Quality of Life and Cost of IMD Complicating with Hearing Loss
		29.11	 Prevention
		29.12	 Conclusion
		References
	30: Haemophilus influenzae Type b Meningitis in Children and Hearing Loss
		30.1	 Introduction
		30.2	 Epidemiology
		30.3	 Microbiology
		30.4	 Pathogenesis
		30.5	 Clinical Manifestations
			30.5.1	 Meningitis
		30.6	 Diagnosis
		30.7	 Treatment
			30.7.1	 Antibiotic Therapy
			30.7.2	 Corticosteroids
		30.8	 Complications
		30.9	 Haemophilus influenzae Type b Meningitis and Hearing Loss
		30.10	 Postexposure Chemoprophylaxis
		30.11	 Prevention
		30.12	 Conclusion
		References
	31: Gram-Negative Bacterial Meningitis in Children and Hearing Loss
		31.1	 Introduction
		31.2	 Etiology
		31.3	 Epidemiology
		31.4	 Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology
		31.5	 Clinical Features
			31.5.1 Clinical Features in Newborns and Premature Infants
			31.5.2 Clinical Features in Postneonatal Infants and Children
		31.6	 Laboratory and Radiological Evaluation
			31.6.1	 Blood Tests
			31.6.2 Cerebrospinal Fluid Evaluation
				31.6.2.1	 Contraindications for Lumbar Puncture
				31.6.2.2	 Cerebrospinal Fluid Examination
				31.6.2.3	 Cerebrospinal Fluid Examination in Newborns and Premature Babies
			31.6.3 Cranial Imaging
		31.7	 Differential Diagnosis
		31.8	 Treatment
			31.8.1 General Principles
				31.8.1.1	 Supportive Measures
				31.8.1.2	 Fluid Management
				31.8.1.3	 Follow-Up
				31.8.1.4	 Hospital Infection Control
			31.8.2 Antibiotic Treatment
				31.8.2.1	 Treatment Selection Based on the Bacteria
					Neisseria meningitidis
					Haemophilus influenzae
					Gram-Negative Bacilli
						Enteric Gram-Negative Bacilli
						Pseudomonas aeruginosa
						Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL) Producing Organisms
				31.8.2.2	 Other Antibiotics
			31.8.3 Treatment in Newborns and Prematures
			31.8.4 Adjuvant Therapy
			31.8.5 Duration of Therapy
		31.9	 Prognosis
			31.9.1 Neonatal Meningitis Prognosis
		31.10	 Prevention
			31.10.1 Meningococcal Chemoprophylaxis
			31.10.2 Haemophilus influenzae Type b Chemoprophylaxis
		31.11	 Complications
			31.11.1 Non-Neurological Complications
			31.11.2 Neurological Complications
				31.11.2.1	 Cerebral Edema
				31.11.2.2	 Subdural Effusion
				31.11.2.3	 Seizures
				31.11.2.4	 Cranial Nerve Palsy
				31.11.2.5	 Ataxia
				31.11.2.6	 Motor Deficits
				31.11.2.7	 Cerebrovascular Complications
				31.11.2.8	 Mental and Behavioral Disabilities
				31.11.2.9	 Intellectual Disability
				31.11.2.10	 Behavioral Problems
				31.11.2.11	 Hearing Loss
		31.12	 Gram-Negative Ventriculo-Peritoneal Shunt Meningitis
		31.13	 Hearing Loss
			31.13.1 Conductive Hearing Loss
			31.13.2 Sensorineural Hearing Loss
			31.13.3 Auditory Neuropathy Spectrum Disorder
			31.13.4 Retrocochlear Hearing Loss
			31.13.5 Mixed Hearing Loss
		31.14	 Gram-Negative Bacterial Meningitis and Hearing Loss
			31.14.1 Ototoxic Drugs
			31.14.2 Hearing Loss and Epidemiology in Acute Bacterial Meningitis
			31.14.3 Pathogenesis of Hearing Loss in Acute Bacterial Meningitis
			31.14.4 Clinical Evaluation and Diagnosis of Hearing Loss in Acute Bacterial Meningitis
			31.14.5 Laboratory Diagnosis and Evaluation of Hearing Loss
				31.14.5.1	 Brainstem Response
				31.14.5.2	 Otoacoustic Emissions
			31.14.6 Follow-up and Management of Hearing Loss
		31.15	 Conclusion
		References
	32: Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		32.1	 Introduction
		32.2	 Infections Involving Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli
			32.2.1	 Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC)
			32.2.2	 Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC)
			32.2.3	 Septicemic Pathogenic Escherichia coli (SEPEC)
			32.2.4	 Neonatal Meningitis-Causing Escherichia coli (NMEC)
		32.3	 Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia Coli Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
			32.3.1	 Otitis Caused by Extraintestinal Escherichia coli and Hearing Loss
			32.3.2	 Meningitis Caused by Extraintestinal Escherichia coli and Hearing Loss
			32.3.3	 Hearing Loss Induced by Drugs Used in the Treatment of Extraintestinal Escherichia coli Infection
		32.4	 Conclusion
		References
	33: Citrobacter Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		33.1	 Introduction
		33.2	 Microbiology
		33.3	 Epidemiology
		33.4	 Pathogenesis
		33.5	 Clinical Manifestations
		33.6	 Diagnosis
		33.7	 Treatment
		33.8	 Citrobacter Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
			33.8.1	 Citrobacter Infection of the Central Nervous System
			33.8.2	 Citrobacter Ear Infection
		33.9	 Conclusion
		References
	34: Fusobacterium Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		34.1	 Introduction
		34.2	 Etiology
		34.3	 Epidemiology
		34.4	 Clinical Manifestations
		34.5	 Laboratory Findings and Diagnostic Tests
		34.6	 Differential Diagnoses
		34.7	 Treatment
		34.8	 Prognosis
		34.9	 Prevention
		34.10	 Fusobacterium Infection and Hearing Loss
		34.11	 Conclusion
		References
	35: Streptococcus suis Infection and Hearing Loss
		35.1	 Introduction
		35.2	 Epidemiology
		35.3	 Etiology and Transmission
		35.4	 Risk Factors
		35.5	 Clinical Manifestations
		35.6	 Streptococcus suis Infection and Hearing Loss
		35.7	 Diagnosis
		35.8	 Treatment
		35.9	 Prevention
		35.10	 Conclusion
		References
	36: Lyme Disease and Hearing Loss in Children
		36.1	 Introduction
		36.2	 Background
		36.3	 The Infectious Transmission Cycle of B. Burgdorferi
		36.4	 Pathogenesis
			36.4.1	 Stage 1 Disease
			36.4.2	 Stage 2 Disease
			36.4.3	 Third-Stage Disease
		36.5	 Aetiology
		36.6	 Prognosis
		36.7	 Post-Treatment Lyme Disease Syndrome
		36.8	 Signs and Symptoms
		36.9	 Diagnosis
		36.10	 Management
		36.11	 Lyme Disease and Auditory Impairment
		References
	37: Tuberculosis in Children and Hearing Loss
		37.1	 Introduction
		37.2	 Etiology
		37.3	 Epidemiology and Transmission
		37.4	 Pathogenesis, Immunity, and Pathology
		37.5	 Clinical Manifestations
		37.6	 Complications
		37.7	 Differential Diagnosis
		37.8	 Laboratory Findings and Diagnosis
			37.8.1	 Microbiology-Based Tests
			37.8.2	 Immune-Based Tests
		37.9	 Treatment
		37.10	 Prognosis
		37.11	 Prevention and Control
		37.12	 Tuberculosis Disease and Hearing Loss
			37.12.1	 Tuberculosis Otomastoiditis and Hearing Loss
				37.12.1.1	 Etiology
				37.12.1.2	 Epidemiology
				37.12.1.3	 Pathogenesis and Immunity
				37.12.1.4	 Pathology
				37.12.1.5	 Clinical Manifestations
				37.12.1.6	 Complications
				37.12.1.7	 Differential Diagnosis
				37.12.1.8	 Laboratory Findings
				37.12.1.9	 Imaging Studies
				37.12.1.10	 Diagnosis
				37.12.1.11	 Treatment
				37.12.1.12	 Prognosis
				37.12.1.13	 Prevention and Control
			37.12.2	 Tuberculosis Nasopharyngitis and Hearing Loss
			37.12.3	 Tuberculous Meningitis and Hearing Loss
		37.13	 Pediatric Case Reports and Series of Tuberculous Otitis and Mastoiditis
		37.14	 Conclusion
		References
	38: Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		38.1	 Introduction
		38.2	 Etiology
		38.3	 Epidemiology and Transmission
		38.4	 Pathogenesis and Immunity
		38.5	 Pathology
		38.6	 Clinical Manifestations
			38.6.1	 Lymphadenitis
			38.6.2	 Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
			38.6.3	 Pulmonary Infection
			38.6.4	 Disseminated Infection
			38.6.5	 Miscellaneous Infections
		38.7	 Complications
		38.8	 Differential Diagnosis
		38.9	 Laboratory Findings
		38.10	 Diagnosis
		38.11	 Treatment
			38.11.1	 Lymphadenitis
			38.11.2	 Skin, Soft Tissue, and Bone Infections
			38.11.3	 Pulmonary Infection
			38.11.4	 Disseminated Infection
		38.12	 Prognosis
		38.13	 Prevention and Control
		38.14	 Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Otomastoiditis in Children
			38.14.1	 Etiology
			38.14.2	 Epidemiology and Transmission
			38.14.3	 Pathogenesis and Immunity
			38.14.4	 Pathology
			38.14.5	 Clinical Manifestations
			38.14.6	 Complications
			38.14.7	 Differential Diagnosis
			38.14.8	 Laboratory Findings
			38.14.9	 Diagnosis
			38.14.10	 Treatment
			38.14.11	 Prognosis
			38.14.12	 Prevention and Control
		38.15	 Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		38.16	 Conclusion
		References
	39: Cat-Scratch Disease in Children and Hearing Loss
		39.1	 Introduction
		39.2	 Etiology and Transmission
		39.3	 Epidemiology
		39.4	 Pathogenesis and Pathobiology
		39.5	 Clinical Manifestations
			39.5.1	 Typical Cat-Scratch Disease (Lymphadenopathy)
			39.5.2	 Hepatosplenic Cat-Scratch Disease
			39.5.3	 Disseminated Cat-Scratch Disease
			39.5.4	 Other Unusual Manifestations of Cat-Scratch Disease
		39.6	 Cat-Scratch Disease in Children and Hearing Loss
		39.7	 Laboratory Findings and Diagnosis
		39.8	 Differential Diagnosis
		39.9	 Treatment and Prognosis
			39.9.1	 Lymphadenitis
			39.9.2	 Disseminated and Hepatosplenic Cat-Scratch Disease
			39.9.3	 Neurological and Ocular Involvement
		39.10	 Prognosis
		39.11	 Prevention
		39.12	 Conclusion
		References
	40: Bordetella Pertussis Infection and Hearing Loss
		40.1	 Introduction
		40.2	 Etiology
		40.3	 Epidemiology and Transmission
		40.4	 Pathogenesis, Immunity, and Pathology
		40.5	 Clinical Manifestations
		40.6	 Complications
		40.7	 Bordetella Pertussis Infection and Hearing Loss
		40.8	 Differential Diagnosis
		40.9	 Diagnosis and Laboratory Findings
		40.10	 Treatment
		40.11	 Prognosis
		40.12	 Prevention and Control
		40.13	 Conclusion
		References
	41: Diphtheria and Hearing Loss
		41.1	 Introduction
		41.2	 Etiology
		41.3	 Epidemiology
		41.4	 Pathogenesis
		41.5	 Clinical Manifestations
			41.5.1	 Respiratory Tract Diphtheria
			41.5.2	 Cutaneous Diphtheria
			41.5.3	 Diphtheria at Other Sites
		41.6	 Complications
		41.7	 Diphtheria and Hearing Loss
		41.8	 Differential Diagnosis
		41.9	 Diagnosis
			41.9.1	 Clinical Diagnostic Criteria
			41.9.2	 Laboratory Criteria
			41.9.3	 Classification of Cases
		41.10	 Treatment
			41.10.1	 Diphtheria Antitoxin
			41.10.2	 Antimicrobial Therapy
				41.10.2.1	 Antimicrobial Therapy of Clinical Diphtheria
				41.10.2.2	 Antimicrobial Therapy for Carriers
			41.10.3	 Supportive Management
		41.11	 Prognosis
		41.12	 Prevention and Control
			41.12.1	 Vaccines
				41.12.1.1	 Preparations
				41.12.1.2	 Vaccine Schedules
		41.13	 Conclusion
		References
	42: Brucellosis in Children and Hearing Loss
		42.1	 Introduction
		42.2	 Etiology
		42.3	 Epidemiology and Transmission
		42.4	 Pathogenesis, Immunity, and Pathology
		42.5	 Clinical Manifestations
			42.5.1	 Neurobrucellosis
		42.6	 Diagnosis and Laboratory Findings
		42.7	 Hearing Loss in Brucellosis
			42.7.1	 Hearing Loss in Children Presenting with Neurobrucellosis
		42.8	 Treatment
			42.8.1	 Cochlear Implantation for Hearing Loss in Brucellosis
		42.9	 Prevention
		42.10	 Conclusion
		References
	43: Syphilis and Hearing Loss
		43.1	 Introduction
		43.2	 Pathophysiological Features
		43.3	 Aetiology
		43.4	 Prognosis
		43.5	 Diagnosis
			43.5.1	 Serological Investigations
			43.5.2	 Non-treponemal Reaginic Serological Testing
			43.5.3	 Specific Anti-Treponemal Testing
		43.6	 Congenital Syphilis
		43.7	 Pathogenesis
		43.8	 Clinical Findings
		43.9	 Congenital Syphilis and Deafness
		43.10	 Pharmacotherapy
			43.10.1	 Treating Syphilis in Pregnant Women
			43.10.2	 Congenital Syphilis in Neonates
			43.10.3	 Congenital Syphilis in Older Infants and Children
		References
	44: Chlamydia psittaci Infection and Hearing Loss
		44.1	 Definition
		44.2	 Epidemiology
		44.3	 Pathophysiological Features
		44.4	 Aetiology
		44.5	 History
		44.6	 Clinical Presentation
		44.7	 Laboratory Investigations
		44.8	 Imaging Investigations
		44.9	 Medical Therapy
			44.9.1	 Tetracyclines
			44.9.2	 Macrolides
			44.9.3	 Other Agents
		44.10	 Auditory Impairment
		References
	45: Rickettsial Diseases in Children and Hearing Loss
		45.1	 Definition
			45.1.1	 Spotted Fever Biogroup (Consisting of 15 Different Rickettsioses)
			45.1.2	 Typhus Biogroup
			45.1.3	 Scrub Typhus Biogroup (Tsutsugamushi Disease)
			45.1.4	 Other Rickettsial or Highly Similar Diseases
		45.2	 Pathophysiological Features
		45.3	 Aetiology
			45.3.1	 RMSF
			45.3.2	 Rickettsialpox
			45.3.3	 Boutonneuse Fever
			45.3.4	 Epidemic (Louse-Borne) Typhus
			45.3.5	 Brill-Zinsser Disease (Louse-Borne Typhus of Relapsing Type)
			45.3.6	 Murine (Endemic or Flea-Borne) Typhus
			45.3.7	 Scrub Typhus (Tsutsugamushi Disease)
			45.3.8	 Q Fever
		45.4	 Physical Examination and Auditory Impairment
			45.4.1	 RMSF
			45.4.2	 Rickettsialpox
			45.4.3	 Boutonneuse Fever
			45.4.4	 Epidemic Typhus (Louse-Borne) [15]
			45.4.5	 Brill-Zinsser Disease
			45.4.6	 Murine Typhus
			45.4.7	 Tsutsugamushi Disease (Aka Scrub Typhus)
			45.4.8	 Q Fever [16]
		45.5	 Rickettsial Diseases and Deafness
		45.6	 Treatment
			45.6.1	 Antimicrobial Pharmacotherapy
				45.6.1.1	 Doxycycline
				45.6.1.2	 Chloramphenicol
		References
	46: Scrub Typhus and Hearing Loss: Orientia tsutsugamushi Infection via Leptotrombidium Bites
		46.1	 Definition
		46.2	 Microbiological Aspects
		46.3	 Pathophysiology
		46.4	 Epidemiological Factors
		46.5	 Clinical Features
		46.6	 Diagnosis
		46.7	 Scrub Typhus and Deafness
		46.8	 Treatment
		References
	47: Tropheryma whipplei Infection (Whipple’s Disease) and Hearing Loss
		47.1	 Introduction
		47.2	 Pathophysiological Features
		47.3	 Aetiology
		47.4	 Diagnosis
		47.5	 Clinical Feature
			47.5.1	 Classical Presentation of Whipple’s Disease
			47.5.2	 Involvement of the Central Nervous System
		47.6	 Deafness/Auditory Impairment
		47.7	 Management
			47.7.1	 Susceptibility to Antibiotics
		References
Part V: Viral Infections
	48: Viral Infections in Children and Hearing Loss: An Overview
		48.1	 Introduction
		48.2	 The Pathophysiology of Hearing Loss in Viral Infections
			48.2.1	 Direct Invasion
			48.2.2	 Viral Reactivation
			48.2.3	 Immune-Mediated Reactions and Stress-Response
		48.3	 Viral Infections Causing Hearing Loss
			48.3.1	 Viral Infections: Congenital Hearing Loss
				48.3.1.1	 Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection
				48.3.1.2	 Congenital Rubella Infection
				48.3.1.3	 Congenital Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Infection
				48.3.1.4	 Congenital Zika Virus Infection
			48.3.2	 Viral Infections: Congenital and Acquired Hearing Loss
				48.3.2.1	 Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection
				48.3.2.2	 Herpes Simplex Virus Infection
			48.3.3	 Viral Infections: Acquired Hearing Loss
				48.3.3.1	 Measles (Rubeola)
				48.3.3.2	 Varicella-Zoster Virus Infections: Chickenpox and Zoster
				48.3.3.3	 Mumps
				48.3.3.4	 West Nile Virus Infection
				48.3.3.5	 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection
		48.4	 Conclusion
		References
	49: Measles Infection in Children and Hearing Loss
		49.1	 Introduction
		49.2	 Etiology
		49.3	 Epidemiology
		49.4	 Transmission
		49.5	 Pathogenesis
		49.6	 Immune Response
		49.7	 Clinical Manifestations
		49.8	 Special Clinical Variants
			49.8.1	 Modified Measles
			49.8.2	 Atypical Measles
		49.9	 Complications
		49.10	 Measles and Hearing Loss
			49.10.1	 Measles and Otosclerosis
			49.10.2	 Hearing Loss Management
		49.11	 Laboratory Findings
		49.12	 Diagnosis
		49.13	 Differential Diagnosis
		49.14	 Treatment
		49.15	 Prevention
			49.15.1	 Passive Immunization
			49.15.2	 Active Immunization
		49.16	 Conclusion
		References
	50: Mumps Infection in Children and Hearing Loss
		50.1	 Introduction
		50.2	 Etiology and Epidemiology
		50.3	 Pathogenesis and Immune Response
		50.4	 Clinical Manifestations
		50.5	 Complications
			50.5.1	 Central Nervous System Infection
			50.5.2	 Epididymo-Orchitis and Oophoritis
			50.5.3	 Other Manifestations
		50.6	 Mumps and Hearing Loss
		50.7	 Mumps in Pregnancy
		50.8	 Differential Diagnosis
		50.9	 Diagnosis
		50.10	 Treatment and Prognosis
		50.11	 Prevention
			50.11.1	 Vaccination
				50.11.1.1	 Vaccine Recommendation
				50.11.1.2	 Adverse Reactions
				50.11.1.3	 Precautions and Contraindications
				50.11.1.4	 Altered Immunity
			50.11.2	 Control Measures
		50.12	 Conclusion
		References
	51: Epstein-Barr Virus Infection in Children and Hearing Loss
		51.1	 Introduction
		51.2	 Etiology
		51.3	 Epidemiology and Transmission
		51.4	 Pathogenesis
		51.5	 Clinical Manifestations
		51.6	 Differential Diagnosis
		51.7	 Complications
		51.8	 Epstein-Barr Virus Infection and Hearing Loss
		51.9	 Diagnosis and Laboratory Findings
		51.10	 Treatment
		51.11	 Prognosis
		51.12	 Prevention
		51.13	 Conclusion
		References
	52: Herpes Zoster Oticus and Hearing Loss
		52.1	 Introduction
		52.2	 Definition
		52.3	 Pathophysiological Features
		52.4	 Aetiology
		52.5	 Diagnosis
			52.5.1	 History
			52.5.2	 Physical Examination
			52.5.3	 Laboratory Investigations
			52.5.4	 Imaging Investigations
		52.6	 HZO and Auditory Impairment
		52.7	 Treatment
			52.7.1	 Antiviral Medication
			52.7.2	 Corticosteroids
		References
	53: Enterovirus Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		53.1	 Introduction
		53.2	 Etiology and Classification
		53.3	 Epidemiology
		53.4	 Pathogenesis
		53.5	 Clinical Manifestations
			53.5.1	 Central Nervous Infections
				53.5.1.1	 Meningitis/Meningoencephalitis
				53.5.1.2	 Acute Flaccid Paralysis
			53.5.2	 Neonatal Sepsis
			53.5.3	 Exanthema and Enanthema
				53.5.3.1	 Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease
				53.5.3.2	 Herpangina
				53.5.3.3	 Maculopapular Rash
				53.5.3.4	 Petechial and Purpuric Rashes
				53.5.3.5	 Urticarial Rash
			53.5.4	 Acute Hemorrhagic Conjunctivitis (AHC)
			53.5.5	 Pleurodynia (Bornholm Disease)
			53.5.6	 Myocarditis
			53.5.7	 Respiratory Disease
			53.5.8	 Chronic Enteroviral Meningoencephalitis (CEM)
		53.6	 Enterovirus Infections and Hearing Loss
		53.7	 Differential Diagnosis
		53.8	 Diagnosis and Laboratory Findings
		53.9	 Treatment
		53.10	 Prevention
		53.11	 Conclusion
		References
	54: COVID-19 in Children and Hearing Loss
		54.1	 Introduction
		54.2	 Infection in Children
		54.3	 Risk Factors for High Severity COVID-19
		54.4	 Clinical Presentation
			54.4.1	 Coryzal Symptoms Due to SARS-CoV-2
			54.4.2	 Age-Related Factors
			54.4.3	 Respiratory Symptoms
			54.4.4	 Clinical Features
		54.5	 Complications
			54.5.1	 Multi-System Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)
		54.6	 Laboratory Investigations in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
		54.7	 Deafness in Cases of COVID-19
			54.7.1	 Likely Pathogenesis
				54.7.1.1	 Brainstem Injury
					The Role of Inflammation
				54.7.1.2	 Dissemination Via the Bloodstream
				54.7.1.3	 Toxicity to the Ear Secondary to Antiviral Medications
			54.7.2	 Auditory Impairment
		54.8	 Vaccination
		References
	55: Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus (LCMV) Infection in Children and Hearing Loss
		55.1	 Introduction
		55.2	 Definition
		55.3	 Pathophysiology
			55.3.1	 Acquired Infection
			55.3.2	 Congenital Infection
		55.4	 Laboratory Investigations
			55.4.1	 Serological Testing
			55.4.2	 Analysis of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
			55.4.3	 PCR Amplification of Viral DNA
		55.5	 Auditory Impairment
		55.6	 Clinical Management
		References
	56: Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Children and Hearing Loss
		56.1	 Introduction
		56.2	 Etiology
		56.3	 Epidemiology and Transmission
		56.4	 Etiopathogenesis and Immunity
		56.5	 Clinical Manifestations
		56.6	 Diagnosis
		56.7	 Treatment
		56.8	 Prognosis
		56.9	 Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Children and Hearing Loss
		56.10	 Conclusion
		References
	57: Lassa Fever and Hearing Loss
		57.1	 Definition
		57.2	 Classification
			57.2.1	 LCMV-Lassa Virus Complex (Eastern Hemisphere)
				57.2.1.1	 Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus
				57.2.1.2	 Lassa Virus
				57.2.1.3	 Mopeia Virus
				57.2.1.4	 Mobala Virus
				57.2.1.5	 Ippy Virus
				57.2.1.6	 Lujo Virus
		57.3	 Pathophysiological Features
			57.3.1	 Characterisation of the Virus
			57.3.2	 Lassa Virus (The Cause of Lassa Fever) [1]
		57.4	 Clinical Presenting Features of Lassa Fever
		57.5	 Physical Examination
		57.6	 Complications
		57.7	 Clinical Management
		57.8	 Auditory Impairment
		57.9	 Pathogenetic Mechanisms Involved in Sensorineural Deafness Secondary to Lassa Virus
		References
	58: Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever and Hearing Loss
		58.1	 Introduction
		58.2	 Background
		58.3	 Dengue Fever
		58.4	 Severe Dengue (Aka Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever)
		58.5	 Signs and Symptoms
			58.5.1	 Severe Dengue (Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever, Dengue Shock Syndrome)
		58.6	 Diagnosis
		58.7	 Auditory Impairment
		58.8	 Clinical Management
		References
Part VI: Fungal Infections
	59: Fungal Infections in Children and Hearing Loss
		59.1	 Introduction
		59.2	 Definition
		59.3	 Pathophysiology
		59.4	 Aetiology
		59.5	 Hearing Loss
		59.6	 Clinical Management
			59.6.1	 Antifungal Agents
			59.6.2	 Clotrimazole 1% Ear Drops
			59.6.3	 Nystatin Powder
		References
	60: Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis Infection in Children and Hearing Loss
		60.1	 Background
		60.2	 Mycological Features
		60.3	 Pathophysiological Features
		60.4	 Cryptococcal Infections of the Central Nervous System (CNS)
		60.5	 Physical Examination
		60.6	 Laboratory Investigations
		60.7	 Auditory Impairment
		60.8	 Treatment
		References
Part VII: Parasitic Infections
	61: Parasitic Infections in Children and Hearing Loss: An Overview
		61.1	 Introduction
		61.2	 Giardiasis
			61.2.1	 Life Cycle of the Parasite
			61.2.2	 Mechanism of Injury
			61.2.3	 Diagnosis
			61.2.4	 Clinical Management
		61.3	 Toxoplasmosis
			61.3.1	 Aetiology
			61.3.2	 Physical Examination
			61.3.3	 Laboratory Investigations
			61.3.4	 Clinical Management
			61.3.5	 Toxoplasmal Infection and Auditory Impairment
		61.4	 Helminthic Infection
			61.4.1	 Hookworm Infestations
			61.4.2	 Roundworm Infestations
			61.4.3	 Trichuriasis
		References
	62: Angiostrongylus cantonensis (the Rat Lungworm) Infection and Hearing Loss
		62.1	 Introduction
		62.2	 Aetiology
		62.3	 Epidemiology
		62.4	 Clinical Features
		62.5	 History and Physical Examination
		62.6	 Diagnosis
			62.6.1	 Radiological Investigations
		62.7	 Auditory Impairment
		62.8	 Treatment
		References
Part VIII: Prion Diseases
	63: Prion Diseases and Hearing Loss
		63.1	 Definition
		63.2	 Pathophysiological Features
			63.2.1	 Prion Protein
			63.2.2	 Molecular Biology of the Non-pathogenic PrP Protein
			63.2.3	 The Route by which Prions Enter the Central Nervous System
		63.3	 Aetiology of Prion Diseases
		63.4	 Diagnosis
		63.5	 Clinical Presenting Features
			63.5.1	 Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker Disease (GSS)
				63.5.1.1	 Epidemiological and Genetic Characteristics
				63.5.1.2	 Neuropathological Features
				63.5.1.3	 Clinical Presentation
		63.6	 Diagnosis
			63.6.1	 Auditory Impairment
			63.6.2	 Fatal Familial Insomnia
				63.6.2.1	 Epidemiological and Genetic Features
				63.6.2.2	 Neuropathological Features
				63.6.2.3	 Laboratory and Radiological Investigations
			63.6.3	 Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)
		References
	64: Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Hearing Loss
		64.1	 Introduction
		64.2	 Epidemiological Characteristics
		64.3	 Pathogenetic Basis
		64.4	 Clinical Characteristics
			64.4.1	 Frequently Occurring Presenting Features
		64.5	 Subtypes within sCJD
		64.6	 Research into CJD Biomarkers: State of Current Knowledge
			64.6.1	 14-3-3 Proteins as Surrogate Markers. Detection in CSF
			64.6.2	 Imaging Investigations: MRI
			64.6.3	 Genetic Markers
		64.7	 Diagnosis
			64.7.1	 Diagnostic Criteria
		64.8	 Treatment
			64.8.1	 Palliative Support
		64.9	 Conclusion
		References
Part IX: Diseases of Unknown Etiology
	65: Kawasaki Disease and Hearing Loss
		65.1	 Introduction
		65.2	 Epidemiology
		65.3	 Etiology
		65.4	 Pathophysiology and Pathology
		65.5	 Clinical and Laboratory Findings
			65.5.1	 Bilateral Nonexudative Conjunctivitis
			65.5.2	 Oropharyngeal Changes
			65.5.3	 Skin Rash
			65.5.4	 Extremity Changes
			65.5.5	 Cervical Lymphadenopathy
			65.5.6	 Cardiovascular Problems
			65.5.7	 Laboratory Findings
		65.6	 Differential Diagnosis
		65.7	 Treatment
		65.8	 Complications of Kawasaki Disease
			65.8.1	 Ocular Complications of Kawasaki Disease
			65.8.2	 Neurological Complications of Kawasaki Disease
		65.9	 Kawasaki Disease and Hearing Loss
		65.10	 Conclusion
		References
Part X: Autoinflammatory Syndromes
	66: Periodic Fever Syndromes in Children and Hearing Loss
		66.1	 Introduction
		66.2	 Familial Mediterranean Fever
			66.2.1	 Etiology and Pathogenesis
			66.2.2	 Clinical Presentation
			66.2.3	 Diagnosis
			66.2.4	 Treatment
			66.2.5	 Hearing Loss in Familial Mediterranean Fever
		66.3	 Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) Receptor-Associated Periodic Syndrome (TRAPS)
			66.3.1	 Etiology and Pathogenesis
			66.3.2	 Clinical Presentation
			66.3.3	 Diagnosis
			66.3.4	 Treatment
			66.3.5	 Hearing Loss in Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor-Associated Periodic Syndrome
		66.4	 Cryopyrin-Associated Periodic Syndromes
			66.4.1	 Etiology and Pathogenesis
			66.4.2	 Clinical Presentation
			66.4.3	 Diagnosis
			66.4.4	 Treatment
			66.4.5	 Hearing Loss in Cryopyrin-Associated Periodic Syndromes
		66.5	 Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency
			66.5.1	 Etiology and Pathogenesis
			66.5.2	 Clinical Presentation
			66.5.3	 Diagnosis
			66.5.4	 Treatment
			66.5.5	 Hearing Loss in Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency
		66.6	 Periodic Fever, Aphthous Stomatitis, Pharyngitis, and Cervical Lymphadenitis (PFAPA) Syndrome
			66.6.1	 Etiology and Pathogenesis
			66.6.2	 Clinical Presentation
			66.6.3	 Diagnosis
			66.6.4	 Treatment
			66.6.5	 Hearing Loss in PFAPA
		66.7	 Conclusion
		References
Part XI: Vaccines
	67: Vaccines and Hearing Loss
		67.1	 Introduction
		67.2	 Side Effects of Vaccination
		67.3	 Allergenic Compounds Included in Vaccine Preparations
		67.4	 Immunisation Against Meningococcus
			67.4.1	 Side Effects
		67.5	 COVID-19 Immunisation and Auditory Loss
			67.5.1	 Management of SSNHL
		67.6	 Immunisation Against Influenza, Tetanus, Diphtheria and Rabies
		References
Part XII: Cochlear Implants
	68: Cochlear Implant Infections in Children
		68.1	 Introduction
		68.2	 Cochlear Implant Device
		68.3	 Infectious Complications at the Cochlear Implant Site After Placing
			68.3.1	 Clinical Manifestations
			68.3.2	 Laboratory Workup and Radiological Approach
			68.3.3	 Management
		68.4	 Infections of the Middle Ear and Associated Tissues Related to Cochlear Implant
			68.4.1	 Acute Otitis Media in Cochlear Implant Recipient Children
				68.4.1.1	 Clinical Manifestations
				68.4.1.2	 Microbiological Workup
				68.4.1.3	 Radiological Assessment
				68.4.1.4	 Management
				68.4.1.5	 Prevention
				68.4.1.6	 Education
		68.5	 Meningitis and Mastoiditis Related to Cochlear Implant
			68.5.1	 Meningitis
				68.5.1.1	 Clinical Manifestations
				68.5.1.2	 Laboratory and Microbiological Workup
				68.5.1.3	 Radiological Assessment
				68.5.1.4	 Management
			68.5.2	 Mastoiditis
				68.5.2.1	 Laboratory and Radiological Workup
				68.5.2.2	 Management
		68.6	 Preventive Measures
		68.7	 Conclusion
		References
Part XIII: Therapeutic Agents
	69: Antibacterial Agents for Pediatric Infections, and Hearing Loss
		69.1	 Introduction
		69.2	 Ear Anatomy and Hearing Physiology
		69.3	 Ototoxicity
		69.4	 Antibiotics and Hearing Loss
			69.4.1	 Aminoglycosides and Hearing Loss
			69.4.2	 Macrolides and Hearing Loss
			69.4.3	 Beta-Lactams and Hearing Loss
			69.4.4	 Tetracyclines and Hearing Loss
			69.4.5	 Fluoroquinolones and Hearing Loss
			69.4.6	 Glycopeptides and Hearing Loss
			69.4.7	 Polymyxins and Hearing Loss
			69.4.8	 Topical Antibiotics and Hearing Loss
		69.5	 Genetic Susceptibility to Ototoxicity
		69.6	 Diagnosis and Monitoring of Hearing Loss
		69.7	 Conclusion
		References
	70: Antituberculous Agents for Pediatric Mycobacterial Diseases, and Hearing Loss
		70.1	 Introduction
		70.2	 Aminoglycoside Antituberculous Drugs and Hearing Loss
			70.2.1	 Streptomycin
				70.2.1.1	 Discovery and Pharmacological Properties
				70.2.1.2	 Early Experiences in Tuberculosis Treatment with Streptomycin
				70.2.1.3	 Adverse Effects of Streptomycin
				70.2.1.4	 Streptomycin and Early Experiences on Hearing Loss
				70.2.1.5	 Streptomycin Use During Pregnancy
				70.2.1.6	 Dihydrostreptomycin
				70.2.1.7	 Combined Streptomycin Formulas
			70.2.2	 Viomycin
			70.2.3	 Capreomycin
			70.2.4	 Kanamycin
			70.2.5	 Amikacin
			70.2.6	 Injectable Aminoglycoside-Induced Auriculo-Pathological Changes and Pathogenesis
			70.2.7	 Injectable Aminoglycosides Used as a Component of Modern Combination Antituberculous Therapy Including Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis and Hearing Loss
			70.2.8	 Exclusive Pediatric Studies on Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis and Aminoglycoside-Related Hearing Loss
			70.2.9	 Tuberculosis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Coinfection and Aminoglycoside-Related Hearing Loss
			70.2.10	 Current Tuberculosis Treatment Guidelines and Aminoglycoside-Related Hearing Loss
			70.2.11	 Genetic Susceptibility to Aminoglycoside-Related Hearing Loss
		70.3	 Non-Aminoglycoside Antituberculous Drugs and Hearing Loss
			70.3.1	 Isoniazid
			70.3.2	 Ethambutol
			70.3.3	 Thiacetazone
			70.3.4	 Macrolides
		70.4	 Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses on Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Treatment and Hearing Loss
		70.5	 Evaluation Before and During Ototoxic Antituberculous Treatment
		70.6	 Conclusion
		References
	71: Antiviral Agents for Pediatric Infections, and Hearing Loss
		71.1	 Introduction
		71.2	 Antiviral Agents for Herpesviruses
			71.2.1	 Ganciclovir and Valganciclovir
				71.2.1.1	 Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics
				71.2.1.2	 Indications
				71.2.1.3	 Toxicity
				71.2.1.4	 Resistance
			71.2.2	 Cidofovir
				71.2.2.1	 Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics
				71.2.2.2	 Indications
				71.2.2.3	 Toxicity
				71.2.2.4	 Resistance
			71.2.3	 Foscarnet
				71.2.3.1	 Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics
				71.2.3.2	 Indications
				71.2.3.3	 Toxicity
				71.2.3.4	 Resistance
			71.2.4	 Letermovir
			71.2.5	 Acyclovir and Valacyclovir
				71.2.5.1	 Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics
				71.2.5.2	 Indications
				71.2.5.3	 Toxicity
				71.2.5.4	 Resistance
		71.3	 Antiviral Agents for Influenza
		71.4	 Antiviral Agents for Chronic Hepatitis B Infection
			71.4.1	 Interferon-Alpha and Polyethylene Glycol Interferon-Alpha
			71.4.2	 Lamivudine
			71.4.3	 Adefovir Dipivoxil
			71.4.4	 Entecavir and Tenofovir
		71.5	 Antiviral Agents for Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection
		71.6	 Antiretroviral Agents for Pediatric HIV Infection
			71.6.1	 Toxicity
		71.7	 Antiviral Agents and Hearing Loss
		71.8	 Conclusion
		References
	72: Antifungal Agents for Pediatric Infections, and Hearing Loss
		72.1	 Introduction
		72.2	 Polyene Antifungals and Hearing Loss
			72.2.1	 Amphotericin B and Hearing Loss
			72.2.2	 Nystatin and Hearing Loss
		72.3	 Azole Antifungals and Hearing Loss
			72.3.1	 Topical Azoles
			72.3.2	 Systemic Azoles
		72.4	 Echinocandins and Hearing Loss
		72.5	 Pyrimidine Analogs and Hearing Loss
			72.5.1	 Flucytosine and Hearing Loss
		72.6	 Allylamines and Benzylamine Derivatives
			72.6.1	 Terbinafine and Hearing Loss
		72.7	 Conclusion
		References
	73: Antiparasitic Agents for Pediatric Infections, and Hearing Loss
		73.1	 Introduction
		73.2	 Ototoxicity
		73.3	 Mechanism of Ototoxicity
		73.4	 Antiparasitic Drugs and Hearing Loss
			73.4.1	 Anthelmintic Drugs and Hearing Loss
			73.4.2	 Antiprotozoal Drugs and Hearing Loss
				73.4.2.1	 Antimalarial Drugs and Hearing Loss
				73.4.2.2	 Other Drugs with Antiprotozoal Activity and Hearing Loss
		73.5	 Conclusion
		References