Healthful Lipids

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
ISBN 1893997510......Page 3
Preface......Page 4
Table of Contents......Page 5
1.1 Introduction......Page 8
1.1.1 Origin of Trans FA......Page 9
1.1.2 Structures of Common Dietary Trans FA......Page 10
1.1.3 Trans FA Content in Foods......Page 13
1.1.4 Regulatory and Nutrition Labeling Considerations......Page 23
References......Page 31
2.1 Introduction......Page 40
2.1.1 Safety Issues......Page 41
2.1.2 International Regulations......Page 47
2.1.3 Public Acceptance of GM Lipids......Page 48
2.2 Conclusions......Page 51
References......Page 52
3.1 Introduction......Page 55
3.1.1 Food Products......Page 57
3.2 Production of Vegetable Oils......Page 59
3.2.1 Oil Extraction......Page 61
3.3 Refining Vegetable Oils......Page 65
References......Page 70
4.1 Introduction......Page 72
4.1.1 Electrocatalytic Hydrogenation......Page 73
4.1.2 Precious Metal Catalyst Hydrogenation......Page 77
4.1.3 Supercritical Fluid State Hydrogenation......Page 80
References......Page 81
5.2 Hyphenated Mass Spectrometry......Page 85
5.2.1 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry......Page 86
5.2.2 GC/Combustion/Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (GC/C/IRMS)......Page 87
5.2.3 Liquid Chromatography/MS and Tandem MS......Page 89
5.3 GC/Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 96
5.4 Hyphenated Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy......Page 98
References......Page 100
6.1 Introduction......Page 106
6.1.1 Reduction in Toxicity......Page 110
6.1.2 Alteration in Lipid Content......Page 112
6.1.3 Enrichment of Ingredients......Page 118
6.1.4 Delivery Technology......Page 125
6.1.5 Commercial Development......Page 128
6.2 Concluding Remarks......Page 129
References......Page 130
7.1 Introduction......Page 134
7.1.1 Process, Apparatus, and Operation Effect......Page 135
7.1.2 Applications for Lipid Processing......Page 139
7.1.3 Fractionation of Oils and Fats......Page 144
References......Page 149
8.1 Introduction......Page 152
8.2.1 Nucleation, Growth, and Polymorphism......Page 153
8.2.2 Experimental Techniques Used in Fat Crystallization......Page 157
8.3.1 Modification Techniques......Page 159
8.3.2 Production and/or Modification of Fats for Enhanced Health and Functional Benefits......Page 162
8.3.3 EFA and Vegetable Oils with Biologically Active Components......Page 170
8.3 Summary......Page 174
References......Page 175
9.1 Introduction......Page 178
9.1.1 Rationale for Decreased Consumption of SFA......Page 179
9.1.2 Rationale for Increasing PUFA......Page 180
9.1.3 The Role of MUFA......Page 183
9.1.4 The Rationale for Reducing Dietary Cholesterol......Page 184
9.1.5 The Role of Carbohydrates......Page 186
9.1.6 Meta-Analyses on Behavior of Individual FA......Page 187
9.1.7 Individual SFA......Page 190
9.1.8 Animal Studies, Individual FA and LDL-C Metabolism......Page 195
9.1.9 Animal Studies, Individual FA and HDL-C Metabolism......Page 196
9.1.10 Trans FA (TFA) Effects on Health......Page 197
9.2.1 Effect on LDL-C and HDL-C......Page 198
9.2.3 Increased Lipoprotein (a) Concentration......Page 200
9.3 Summary......Page 201
References......Page 203
10.1 Introduction......Page 211
10.1.1 Digestion and Transport of Fats and Phospholipid Metabolism......Page 212
10.1.2 Conversion of Food Energy into Stored and Expended Energy......Page 218
10.1.3 Signaling Actions by Tissue Eicosanoids: Physiology and Pathology......Page 220
10.1.4 Preventing Imbalances When Choosing Food......Page 223
References......Page 224
11.1 Introduction......Page 228
11.1.2 PUFA Metabolism......Page 229
11.1.3 Limitations of the n-6:n-3 Ratio......Page 232
11.1.5 The Effects of n-6 and n-3 Fatty Acids on Health......Page 235
11.1.6 The Role of AA......Page 238
11.1.7 Effects of the n-6:n-3 Ratio......Page 239
11.1.8 Dietary Recommendations for n-6 and n-3 Fatty Acids......Page 243
11.2 Summary......Page 245
References......Page 246
12.1 Introduction......Page 256
12.2.1 Natural Origins of CLA......Page 257
12.2.2 Intake of CLA from Natural Sources......Page 259
12.2.3 CLA Produced from Vegetable Oils......Page 260
12.3.1 Human Studies with Two-Isomer Preparations......Page 261
12.3.2 Human Studies with Four-Isomer CLA Preparations......Page 269
12.3.3 Human Studies with Purified CLA Isomer Preparations......Page 271
12.4 Conclusions......Page 272
References......Page 274
13.2 Protection of Lipids by Antioxidants......Page 280
13.3.2 Tocopherols and Tocotrienols as Antioxidants......Page 282
13.3.3 Antioxidants of Sesame Oil and Linseed Oil......Page 284
13.3.4 Antioxidants in Olive Oil......Page 285
13.3.5 Antioxidants of Rice Bran Oil......Page 286
13.3.7 Phytosterols as Antioxidants......Page 287
13.4.1 Chemical Structures of Natural Antioxidants in Plants......Page 288
13.4.2 Applications of Antioxidants from Oilseeds......Page 290
13.4.3 Application of Antioxidants from Spices......Page 292
13.4.4 Application of Antioxidants from Tea, Herbs, and Plant Materials Used for the Preparation of Beverages......Page 293
13.4.5 Application of Antioxidants from Cereals and Pulses......Page 295
13.4.6 Application of Antioxidants from Vegetables and Fruits......Page 296
13.5 Synergists and Metal Chelators......Page 297
References......Page 299
14.1 Introduction......Page 308
14.2 Commercial Sources of GLA......Page 309
14.3 Metabolism of GLA......Page 310
14.4.1 Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Actions......Page 311
14.4.2 Cancer......Page 315
14.4.3 Human Studies......Page 317
14.4.4 Cardiovascular Effects......Page 321
14.4.5 Skin Conditions......Page 323
14.4.6 Diabetes......Page 326
14.4.7 Infant Nutrition and Development......Page 328
14.5 New Research Directions......Page 329
14.6.1 Safety Issues......Page 330
References......Page 331
15.1.1 The Occurrence, Function, Biosynthesis, Biochemistry, and Molecular Engineering of Phytosterols in Plants......Page 342
15.1.2 The Occurrence of Phytosterols in Foods......Page 350
15.1.3 The Effect of Dietary Phytosterols on Human Nutrition and Health......Page 351
15.1.4 The Effect of Various Food Matrices and Formulations on Phytosterol Efficacy......Page 356
References......Page 359
16.1.1 Dominance of the n-6 PUFA in the Food Supply......Page 368
16.1.3 Emerging Interest in n-3 PUFA: The Cardiovascular System......Page 369
16.2 Eicosapentaenoic Acid Metabolic Pathways......Page 370
16.3.1 Prospective Studies......Page 371
16.3.2 Dietary Intervention Studies......Page 372
16.3.3 Case-Control Studies......Page 373
16.3.4 Blood Pressure......Page 374
16.3.5 Plasma/Serum and Lipoprotein Lipids......Page 375
16.3.6 Thrombosis......Page 376
16.3.7 Vascular Function......Page 377
16.3.8 Antiarrhythmic Effect......Page 378
16.4 Modulation of Inflammation and Immune Function by EPA......Page 379
16.4.1 Dietary EPA and Immune Response......Page 380
16.4.2 Clinical Studies with EPA in Inflammatory Disorders......Page 381
16.5 EPA and Neuropsychological Disorders......Page 382
16.6 EPA and Cancer (Cancer Cachexia)......Page 386
References......Page 388
17.1.1 Lipase: Substrate Specificities and Reactions......Page 402
17.1.2 Strategy for Purification of Useful Materials......Page 403
17.1.3 Strategies for Increasing Reaction Efficiency......Page 404
17.2.1 Purification of FA through Selective Esterification......Page 405
17.2.2 Purification of Tocopherols, Sterols, and Steryl Esters......Page 409
17.3 Conclusion......Page 413
References......Page 415
18.1 Introduction......Page 418
18.2 Monitoring the Reaction......Page 419
18.3 Strategy for Enzymatic Synthesis of sTAG......Page 426
18.3.2 Solvent-Free Systems......Page 427
18.3.3 Increasing the Yield in a Microaqueous System......Page 428
18.4 Enzymatic Synthesis of Pure sTAG Containing PUFA......Page 430
18.5 Enzymatic Synthesis of sTAG Containing PUFA from Natural Oils......Page 433
References......Page 436
19.1.2 Diacylglycerol......Page 440
19.1.6 Carotenes......Page 441
19.1.10 Ubiquinone......Page 442
19.2 Conclusion......Page 443
References......Page 507
20.1 Introduction......Page 515
20.1.1 FA in Plants......Page 516
20.1.2 Future Prospects and Challenges......Page 524
References......Page 526
21.1 Introduction......Page 533
21.1.1 High-Stearate Oils......Page 535
21.1.2 High-Oleate Oils......Page 537
21.1.3 Palmitoleic Acid-Containing Oils......Page 538
21.2 Why Palmitoleic Acid?......Page 540
21.3 High-Laurate Oils......Page 542
21.3.1 Trans-Free Oils......Page 545
References......Page 546
22.1 Introduction......Page 554
22.1.1 Lipid Oxidation in Emulsions......Page 555
22.2 Effect of Emulsion Interfacial Characteristics on Lipid Oxidation and Lipid Hydroperoxide Stability......Page 557
22.2.1 Effect of Surfactant Micelle Solubilization on Lipid Oxidation in Oil-in-Water Emulsions......Page 559
22.2.2 Lipid Oxidation in Protein-Stabilized Oil-in-Water Emulsions......Page 560
22.3 Summary......Page 561
References......Page 562
23.1 Introduction......Page 565
23.2 Mechanisms of Autoxidation in Edible Oil......Page 567
23.3 Mechanisms for Singlet Oxygen Formation and Photosensitized Oxidation in Edible Oil......Page 571
23.4.2 Oil Processing......Page 576
23.4.4 Oxygen......Page 577
23.4.5 Minor Compounds......Page 578
References......Page 589
24.1 Introduction......Page 598
24.1.1 Functional Applications of SL......Page 599
24.1.2 Nutraceutical Applications......Page 604
24.2 Conclusions......Page 608
References......Page 609
25.2 The Physiologic Role of Lipids in Infant Nutrition......Page 614
25.2.1 Fatty Acids......Page 616
25.2.2 LC-PUFA and Their Dietary Precursors in Formulas......Page 618
25.2.3 Triacylglycerols......Page 620
25.2.4 Phospholipids and Glycolipids......Page 622
25.3.1 Fatty Acids......Page 623
25.3.2 Triacylglycerols......Page 629
25.4 Lipid Composition of Commercial Infant-Food Formulations......Page 632
25.5 Perspectives......Page 634
References......Page 636
26.2.1 Cocoa Butter......Page 649
26.2.2 Cocoa Butter Equivalents......Page 650
26.2.3 Cocoa Butter Replacers......Page 653
26.2.4 Cocoa Butter Substitutes......Page 654
26.3 The Effects of CB and CBE on Health......Page 655
26.3.1 LDL Lipoprotein Concentrations and the Absorption of CB and CBE......Page 656
26.3.2 Effect of Positional Distribution on SFA Position in Plasma Cholesterol Concentrations......Page 658
26.4.1 Lower Absorption by Calcium-Fortified CB and CBE......Page 659
26.4.2 Increase in Stearic and Palmitic Acids in Ca-Fortified Chocolate......Page 664
26.4.3 SLS Fat: High Linoleic and Stearic Acid Nontempering Fat......Page 665
26.4.4 No Trans, No Lauric, and No Tempering Fat for Center Filling Applications......Page 667
References......Page 671
27.1.1 Definitions......Page 672
27.1.3 Modifications......Page 673
27.1.4 Fat Crystallization......Page 678
27.1.6 Formulation of Oil Blend Recipes......Page 680
27.1.7 Table Margarine......Page 682
27.1.8 Future Aspects......Page 689
References......Page 690
28.1 Introduction......Page 692
28.1.1 Structure, Energy Value, and Absorption Coefficient of DAG......Page 693
28.1.2 Digestion and Absorption of DAG Compared with TAG......Page 694
28.1.3 Improved Postprandial Lipemia after Ingestion of DAG in Humans......Page 695
28.1.4 Repeated DAG vs. TAG Consumption Reduces Body Fat in Humans......Page 698
28.1.5 Antiobesity Effects of DAG in Animal Studies......Page 700
28.1.6 Beneficial Effects of DAG Consumption in Pathological Conditions......Page 701
28.2 Conclusions......Page 702
References......Page 703
29.1.2 Chemistry of Plant Stanol Esters......Page 706
29.1.3 Production of Stanol Esters......Page 707
29.1.4 Physical Properties of Stanol Esters......Page 709
29.1.5 Oxidative and Processing Stability of Stanol Ester......Page 711
29.1.6 Benecol® Food Applications......Page 712
29.1.7 Adding Stanol Esters to Different Food Forms......Page 714
29.1.8 Stanol Esters in Spreads and Dressings......Page 715
29.1.9 Stanol Esters in Low-Fat Foods......Page 716
29.1.10 Stanol Esters and Heart Health......Page 718
29.1.11 History of Plant Stanol Research......Page 719
29.1.13 Reduction in Dietary and Biliary Cholesterol......Page 720
29.1.14 Clinical Trials with Plant Stanols......Page 722
29.1.15 Sustained Effect in Long-Term Use......Page 723
29.1.16 Formulation of Stanols......Page 724
29.1.18 Effects of Consumption Frequency......Page 725
29.1.19 Effects of Background Diet......Page 726
29.1.20 Source and Composition of Stanols......Page 727
29.1.21 Simultaneous Cholesterol-Lowering Medication......Page 728
29.1.22 Dual Effect of Stanol and the Importance of Lowering Cholesterol and Plant Sterol Levels......Page 729
29.1.23 Safety of Stanol Ester......Page 730
References......Page 731
30.2 Palm Oil and its Fractions......Page 738
30.2.1 Minor Components in Palm Oil......Page 739
30.3 Food Applications of Palm Oil, its Fractions and Components......Page 742
30.3.1 Margarines and Spreads......Page 743
30.3.2 Shortenings......Page 744
30.3.3 Vanaspati......Page 745
30.3.4 Cooking and Frying Oils/Fats......Page 746
30.3.5 Red Palm Oil/Olein......Page 747
30.3.6 Specialty/Confectionary Fats......Page 748
30.3.7 Nondairy Products......Page 749
30.3.9 Other Uses......Page 751
30.4 Conclusions......Page 752
References......Page 753
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