Hazardous Environmental Micro-pollutants, Health Impacts and Allied Treatment Technologies

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Environmental Micropollutants and Their Impact on Human Health with Special Focus on Agriculture
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Sources of Micropollutants
	1.3 Sources of MPs in Wastewater
	1.4 Impacts of MPs
	1.5 Xenobiotic Micropollutants
	1.6 Impact of Pharmaceutical MPs on Soil
	1.7 Impact of MP Pesticides on Soil and Soil Organisms
		1.7.1 Herbicides
	1.8 Interaction of MPs and Sustainable Agriculture
	1.9 Interaction of MPs and Microbial Activities in Soil
	1.10 Interaction of MPs and Human Health
	1.11 Strategies for Management of MPs
		1.11.1 Air Pollutants
		1.11.2 Water Pollutants
		1.11.3 Solid Pollutants
	1.12 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2: Infectious Diseases, Challenges, and Their Impacts on Human Health Under Changing Climate
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Infectious Diseases (IDs) and Climate Changes (CC)
		2.2.1 Malaria, Yellow Fever, Dengue Fever, and Vector-Borne Diseases (VBDs)
		2.2.2 COVID 19 and Climate Change
		2.2.3 TB, Asthma, and Other Respiratory Disorder
		2.2.4 Zoonotic and Anthroponosis Diseases
		2.2.5 Waterborne Diseases
	2.3 Remediation and Control of ID Related to CC
	2.4 Future Prospective and Role of Modelling on ID
	2.5 Conclusion and Recommendations
	References
Chapter 3: Marble Dust as an Environmental and Occupational Hazard
	3.1 Introduction
		3.1.1 Potential Hazards from Marble Quarrying to Waste
		3.1.2 Exposure to Marble Dust Concentration
		3.1.3 Calculation of Exposure
		3.1.4 Inhalable and Respirable Marble Dust
	3.2 Health Hazards at Workplace and in the Surrounding
		3.2.1 Silicosis
			3.2.1.1 Acute Silicosis
			3.2.1.2 Chronic Silicosis
		3.2.2 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
		3.2.3 Pneumoconiosis
		3.2.4 Lung Carcinoma
		3.2.5 Skin Disorders
		3.2.6 Ophthalmic Disorders
		3.2.7 Occupational Renal Disorders
	3.3 Health Hazards Due to Inappropriate Management
	3.4 Hazard Prevention and Control
		3.4.1 Medical Measures
		3.4.2 Engineering Measures
		3.4.3 Legislation
	3.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4: Environmental Degradation and Micro-pollutants in Light of Environmental Laws
	4.1 Pollution and Environment
	4.2 Micro-pollutants and Environment
	4.3 Landscape of Environmental Laws for Pollution Remediation and Micro-pollutants
	4.4 Micro-pollutants: A Threat to Growing Economy of Pakistan
	4.5 Environmental Policy and Economic Relation in Pakistan
	4.6 Steps Taken by Government to Tackle Micro-pollution
	4.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5: Impacts of Micro Pollutants on Human Health and Enumerating the Environmental Refinement
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Classes of Micro Pollutants
			5.1.1.1 Pesticides
			5.1.1.2 Pharmaceuticals
			5.1.1.3 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
			5.1.1.4 Personal Care Products
			5.1.1.5 Biocides
			5.1.1.6 Heavy Metals
		5.1.2 Major Sources and Pathways
	5.2 Impacts of Micro Pollutants on Human Health
	5.3 Possible Options for Environmental Refinement
		5.3.1 Elimination by Physicochemical Application
		5.3.2 Use of Biological Treatments
		5.3.3 Removal by Reverse Osmosis (RO)
		5.3.4 Application of Nano Filtration
		5.3.5 Implication of Ozonation Oxidation Processes
		5.3.6 Mechanism of Disinfection
		5.3.7 Construction of Wetlands for Natural Polishing
		5.3.8 Use of Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) Technique
		5.3.9 Elimination Through Ozone and Biofiltration Method
		5.3.10 Removal Through Nitrifying Activated Sludge (NAS)
		5.3.11 Use of Bioaugment KMnO4 and Oxidation
		5.3.12 Through Enzymatic Bioremediation
		5.3.13 By Advanced Anaerobic Digestion Systems
		5.3.14 Use of Microbial Genes for Degradation
		5.3.15 Coagulation/Sedimentation
	5.4 Conclusion and Recommendations
	References
Chapter 6: Emerging Organic Contaminants, Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs): A Threat to Water Quality
	6.1 Organic Contaminants
		6.1.1 Emerging Groundwater Contaminants (EGC) Types
		6.1.2 Pesticides
	6.2 Pharmaceuticals
	6.3 Lifestyle Compound
	6.4 Industrial Condiments and Their By-products
	6.5 Food Additives
	6.6 Water Treatment By-products
	6.7 Flame or Fire Retardants
	6.8 Surfactants
	6.9 Hormones and Sterols
	6.10 Ionic Liquids
		6.10.1 Antibiotics
		6.10.2 Anti-inflammatories and Analgesics
	6.11 Lipid Regulators
		6.11.1 Caffeine
		6.11.2 Carbamazepine
		6.11.3 DEET
		6.11.4 Others PPCPs
		6.11.5 Sources of PPCPs in Groundwater
		6.11.6 Wastewater and Contamination of Surface Water
		6.11.7 Landfills
		6.11.8 Septic Systems
		6.11.9 Livestock Breeding
		6.11.10 Sewer Leakage
		6.11.11 The Fate of PPCPs in the Underground Environment
		6.11.12 Adsorption and Migration
		6.11.13 Degradation
		6.11.14 Sources to the Environment
	6.12 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
Chapter 7: Environmental and Health Effects of Heavy Metals and Their Treatment Methods
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 Chromium and Its Oxidation States
		7.1.2 Copper and Its Oxidation States
	7.2 Sources of Chromium and Copper
		7.2.1 Natural Sources
		7.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources
	7.3 Environmental Effects of Chromium and Copper
	7.4 Health Effects of Chromium and Copper
	7.5 Treatment Methods for Hexavalent Chromium and Copper Removal
		7.5.1 Physicochemical Methods
			7.5.1.1 Adsorption of Chromium and Copper
			7.5.1.2 Electrocoagulation-Based Chromium and Copper Removal
			7.5.1.3 Membrane Filtration-Based Chromium and Copper Removal
			7.5.1.4 Ion Exchange-Based Chromium and Copper Removal
		7.5.2 Bioremediation-Based Chromium and Copper Removal
	7.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8: Organophosphates’ Pollution Status and Their Remediation Through Microbial Interaction in the Twenty-First Century
	8.1 Introduction
		8.1.1 Characteristics of Organophosphates
		8.1.2 Sources and Distribution of Organophosphates in the Biosphere
		8.1.3 Applications of Organophosphates
	8.2 Toxicokinetics of Organophosphates
		8.2.1 Effects on Plant Community
		8.2.2 Effects on Animals
		8.2.3 Effects on Human Health
		8.2.4 Effects on Soil Biota
	8.3 Strategies to Mitigate Impact of Organophosphates
		8.3.1 Chemical-Based Strategy
		8.3.2 Microbial Interaction-Based Strategy
	8.4 Importance of Bioremediation
	8.5 Soil Organisms Play Their Role in Biodegradation of Organophosphates
		8.5.1 List of Soil Microbes Involved in Bioremediation of Organophosphate
		8.5.2 Mechanisms Involved in Bioremediation
	8.6 Case Study
	8.7 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 9: Toxic Organic Micropollutants and Associated Health Impacts
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Types and Sources of Atmospheric Toxic Organic Micropollutants
	9.3 Health Effects of Toxic Organic Micropollutants
	9.4 Toxic Organic Micropollutant Exposure
		9.4.1 Inhalation Exposure
		9.4.2 Dermal Exposure
		9.4.3 Oral Exposure
	9.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10: Impact of Aerial Fungal Spores on Human Health
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Composition of Aeromycoflora
			10.1.1.1 Allergenicity of Airborne Fungal Spore
			10.1.1.2 Fragments of Fungi in the Environment
				Submicron Fungal Fragments
				Larger Fungal Fragments
		10.1.2 Taxonomy of Allergic Fungi
		10.1.3 Common Fungal Aeroallergens
			10.1.3.1 Pollens
			10.1.3.2 Spores
		10.1.4 Respiratory Disease Caused by Aeromycoflora
			10.1.4.1 Histoplasmosis
			10.1.4.2 Coccidioidomycosis
			10.1.4.3 Blastomycosis
			10.1.4.4 Mucormycosis
			10.1.4.5 Aspergillosis
			10.1.4.6 Pneumocystis Pneumonia
			10.1.4.7 Cryptococcosis
			10.1.4.8 Dermatophytes
			10.1.4.9 Allergen in Respiratory Allergic Patients
		10.1.5 Prevalence of Sensitization
		10.1.6 Fungal Detection in Air
		10.1.7 Prevention and Control of Fungal Ailments
			10.1.7.1 Environmental Controls
			10.1.7.2 Meteorological Factors
			10.1.7.3 Chemical Use
			10.1.7.4 Public Awareness
	References
Chapter 11: Health Risks Associated with Arsenic Contamination and Its Biotransformation Mechanisms in Environment: A Review
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Pollution and Contamination
		11.1.2 Pollutants and Their Impact on Environmental Health
	11.2 Heavy Metals
	11.3 Arsenic
		11.3.1 History of Arsenic Use
			11.3.1.1 Origin of Arsenic
		11.3.2 History of Arsenic
		11.3.3 An Old Remedy
	11.4 Occurrence of Arsenic
		11.4.1 Soil Microorganisms and Arsenic
		11.4.2 In Rock
		11.4.3 In Groundwater
		11.4.4 Arsenic in Overall Environment
	11.5 Applications of Arsenic
		11.5.1 Arsenic Used as Biotic Weapon
		11.5.2 Useful Effects of Arsenic
	11.6 Organic and Inorganic Arsenic
		11.6.1 Arsenic in Periodic Table
	11.7 Physical Characteristics of Arsenic
		11.7.1 Arsenic Forms
	11.8 Arsenic Toxicity
		11.8.1 Division of Arsenic According to Their Toxicity
		11.8.2 Effect of Arsenic on Living Cells
		11.8.3 Arsenic Exposure
			11.8.3.1 Biogeochemical Cycle and Arsenic
			11.8.3.2 Exposure Pathway
	11.9 Transfer of Arsenic to Body
		11.9.1 Acute Toxicity
			11.9.1.1 Acute Poisoning
		11.9.2 Chronic Toxicity
			11.9.2.1 Chronic Poisoning
			11.9.2.2 Respiratory Effects
		11.9.3 Gastrointestinal Effect
		11.9.4 Cardiovascular Effects
			11.9.4.1 Peripheral Vascular Disease
			11.9.4.2 Ischemic Heart Disease
			11.9.4.3 Cerebrovascular Disease
			11.9.4.4 Atherosclerosis
			11.9.4.5 Hypertension
		11.9.5 Endocrine
		11.9.6 Hepatic
		11.9.7 Neurological
		11.9.8 Skin
		11.9.9 Developmental Disorders
		11.9.10 Hematological Disorders
	11.10 Genotoxicity Effects
		11.10.1 Mutagenic Effects
		11.10.2 Biochemical Effects
		11.10.3 Renal Effects
		11.10.4 Other Human Health Effects
		11.10.5 Carcinogenic Effect
	11.11 Mechanism of Arsenate Toxicity
		11.11.1 Mechanism of Trivalent Arsenic Toxicity
	11.12 Arsenic Removal Technologies
		11.12.1 Adsorption
		11.12.2 Electrocoagulation
		11.12.3 Ion exchange
		11.12.4 Membrane Technology
		11.12.5 Phytoremediation
	References
Chapter 12: Mycotoxins in Environment and Its Health Implications
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Turkey X Disease and Discovery of Mycotoxins
	12.2 Origin and Chemical Nature of Mycotoxins
	12.3 The Mycotoxins
		12.3.1 Aflatoxins and Types of Aflatoxins
		12.3.2 Ochratoxins
		12.3.3 Fumonisins
		12.3.4 Trichothecenes (TCTCS)
		12.3.5 Zearalenone (ZE)
		12.3.6 Patulin
		12.3.7 Ergot toxin
		12.3.8 Sterigmatocystin
		12.3.9 Nitropropionic acid (NPA)
	12.4 Other Mycotoxins
	12.5 Detection of Mycotoxins
		12.5.1 Traditional Techniques for Detection of Mycotoxins
		12.5.2 New Methods for Detection and Quantification of Mycotoxins
		12.5.3 Management of Mycotoxin Contamination
		12.5.4 Control of Mycotoxin Production
		12.5.5 Removal of Secreted Mycotoxins from Food
		12.5.6 Detoxification of Mycotoxins
		12.5.7 Elimination of Mycotoxins by Food Processing
		12.5.8 Dietary Modifications
	12.6 Toxicology
		12.6.1 Hepatic Effects
		12.6.2 Neurotoxic Effect
		12.6.3 Renal Toxicity
		12.6.4 Effect on Gastrointestinal Tract
		12.6.5 Mutagenic Effects
		12.6.6 Other Effects
	12.7 Mycotoxin Management and Degradation
		12.7.1 Physical Methods
		12.7.2 Chemical Methods
		12.7.3 Biological Methods
	12.8 Climate Change and Increased Mycotoxin Production
	12.9 Future Prospects
	12.10 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13: Antibiotics: Multipronged Threat to Our Environment
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Routes of Antibiotics Contamination to the Environment
		13.2.1 Antibiotics from Poultry, Veterinary, and Aquaculture
		13.2.2 Administration of Antibiotics in Humans for Cure
		13.2.3 Antibiotics from Hospitals and Other Medical Settings
		13.2.4 Medical Waste, Hospital Wastewater, and Spread of Antibiotic Resistance
		13.2.5 Disposal of Unused and Expired Antibiotics
		13.2.6 Industrial Discharge of Antibiotics from Drug Manufacturing Facilities
		13.2.7 Municipal Sewage, Wastewater, and Sewage Treatment Plants
		13.2.8 Antibiotics from Surface Treatment Compounds in the Environment
		13.2.9 Antibiotics from the Aquatic Environment
		13.2.10 Antibiotics from Sediments
	13.3 Airborne Antibiotic Resistance Genes in the Environment
	13.4 Hazardous Consequences of Antibiotics in the Environment
	13.5 Effect of Irrational Use of Antibiotics on Human Health
	13.6 Management Strategies for Control of Antibiotics Release in the Environment
	13.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14: Remediation of Plastic Waste Through Cohesive Approaches
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Plastic as Source of Pollution
	14.3 Nature and Kinds of Plastics
	14.4 Uses of Different Plastic Types
	14.5 Plastic Waste Disposal
		14.5.1 Combustion of Plastic
		14.5.2 Landfilling
		14.5.3 Recycling
	14.6 The Assessment of Biodegradable Nature
		14.6.1 Factors Affecting Biodegradation of Plastics
		14.6.2 Different Steps of Biodegradation Mechanisms
		14.6.3 Aerobic and Anaerobic Degradation of Polymers
	14.7 Major Properties Affecting Plastic Biodegradation
		14.7.1 Characteristics of Plastics
		14.7.2 Weight of Plastic Films
		14.7.3 Thickness of Plastic Films
		14.7.4 Density of Plastic Films
		14.7.5 Mechanical Properties of Plastics
		14.7.6 Tensile Strength of Plastic Films
		14.7.7 Plastic Film Elongation
		14.7.8 Young’s Modulus of Plastics
	14.8 Potential Degradation Procedures
	14.9 Properties and Applications
	14.10 Pretreatments for Plastic Degradation
		14.10.1 Physical Methods
		14.10.2 Photodegradation
		14.10.3 Thermal Degradation
		14.10.4 Chemical Degradation
		14.10.5 Biological Degradation
	14.11 Enzymatic Degradation by Microbial Agents
	14.12 Mechanism of Enzymatic Degradation
		14.12.1 Lignin-Degrading Enzymes
		14.12.2 Laccases
	14.13 Plastic Biodegradation Analysis Techniques
		14.13.1 Mechanical Properties
		14.13.2 Physical Properties
		14.13.3 Chemical Properties
		14.13.4 Molecular Weight
	14.14 Mechanism of Plastic Biodegradation
		14.14.1 Microbial Growth and Plastic Degradation
		14.14.2 Products of Microbial Degraded or Treated Plastics
	14.15 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15: Treatment Technologies for the Environmental Micro-pollutant
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Transport and Sources of MPs in Environment
	15.3 Categories of MPs in Aquatic Environment
		15.3.1 Personal Care Products (PCPs) (Table 15.1)
		15.3.2 Agriculture (Table 15.2)
		15.3.3 Detergents and Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs) (Table 15.3)
		15.3.4 Additives (Table 15.4)
		15.3.5 Flame Retardants (Table 15.5)
		15.3.6 New Class (Table 15.6)
		15.3.7 Human Pharmaceuticals and Veterinary Drugs (Table 15.7)
		15.3.8 Endocrine Disruptive Chemicals (EDCs) (Table 15.8)
	15.4 Environmental Effects
	15.5 Treatment Technologies for Micro-pollutant Removal
		15.5.1 Coagulation-Flocculation
		15.5.2 Activated Carbon Adsorption
		15.5.3 Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)
		15.5.4 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
		15.5.5 Ozonation and Advanced Oxidation Processes
		15.5.6 Membrane Processes
		15.5.7 Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)
	15.6 Conclusion
	References
Index